基础英语写作(三).ppt

1、a,1,PartThree,TheParagraph,a,2,Aparagraphisaunitofthought;itisatonceaunityinitselfandpartofalargerwhole,thatis,theessay.Aparagraphislikeamini-essay;itshouldbeunified,coherentandwelldeveloped.,a,3,Aparagraphisunifiedwhenallthesentencesintheparagrapharefocusedononecentralthoughtoronasingletopic;whenth

2、ewriterwishestointroduceanewthoughtortopic,heshouldbeginanewparagraph.Aparagraphiscoherentwhenitdevelopsnaturallyandsmoothly,andonesentenceleadslogicallytoanother.Therearemanywaystodevelopaparagraph,forexample,byprocess,bycauseandeffect,bycomparisonandcontrast,etc.,a,4,.EffectiveParagraphs1.Unity,Un

3、ityofaparagraphisconcernedwithitscontent.Ifallthesentencesintheparagraphleadtoonecentraltheme,theparagraphisunified.Thecentralthemeisusuallysummarizedinwhatiscalledthetopicsentence.Itoftenappearsatthebeginningoftheparagraph;however,itmayalsobefoundinthemiddleorattheendofaparagraph.,a,5,Forinstance:,

4、Ivedonemyshareofleaningontheirshouldersovertheyears.IneverfelttherewasanythingIcouldnttellmyMomandDad,andIamthekindwhohastogetitalloutwhenIhaveaproblem.Overtheyearstheyvehearditall:thetimeinjuniorhighwhenoneboywasconstantlybuggingme,thetimeinhighschoolwhenIgotcaughtdrinking,thetimeIwreckedtheirVolks

5、wagenRabbit,roughtimeswithmyformerboyfriend,andonandon.,a,6,Exercises:Findoutthetopicsentenceofthefollowingparagraph:,Therearetwofactorswhichdetermineanindividualsintelligence.Thefirstisthesortofbrainheisbornwith.Humanbrainsdifferconsiderably,somebeingmorecapablethanothers.Butnomatterhowgoodabrainhe

6、hastobeginwith,anindividualwillhavealoworderofintelligenceunlesshehasopportunitiestolearn.,a,7,Sothesecondfactoriswhathappenstotheindividualthesortofenvironmentinwhichheisbroughtup.Ifanindividualisinpoorenvironment,itislikelythathisbrainwillfailtodevelopandhewillneverattainthelevelofintelligenceofwh

7、ichheiscapable.,a,8,Exercises.Crossoutthesentencethatisnotconnectedtothetopicofthisparagraph:,Booksareplacedonthelibraryshelvesinnumericalorder.Inotherwords,allthebooksononesubjectareputtogetherunderthesamenumber;forexample,allbooksonUnitedStateshistoryarenumbered973,andareplacedtogetheronthe973shel

8、forshelves.Ofcourse,suchbooksareborrowedmostlybystudentswholearnhistory.,a,9,2.Coherence,Coherenceofaparagraphisconcernedwithitsform,oritsorganization.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder,andthetransitionsshouldbesmoothandnatural.Asaresult,thereaderfindsiteasytofollowthewrit

9、erstrainofthoughtandunderstandwhatheistalkingabout.,a,10,Forinstance:,Thereissomefeelingnowadaysthatreadingisnotasnecessaryasitoncewas.Radioandespeciallytelevisionhavetakenoverfunctionsonceservedbypaintingandothergraphicarts.Admittedly,televisionservessomeofthesefunctionsextremelywell;thevisualcommu

10、nicationofnewsevents,forexample,hasenormousimpact.,a,11,Theabilityofradiotogiveusinformationwhileweareengagedindoingotherthingsforinstance,drivingacarisremarkable,andagreatsavingoftime.Butitmaybeseriouslyquestionedwhethertheadventofmoderncommunicationsmediahasmuchenhancedourunderstandingoftheworldin

11、whichwelive.,a,12,Exercise:,Listedbelowareacontrollingideaandninesentencesthatdevelopthecontrollingidea.Renumberthesentencestoarrangetheminwhatyouthinkisthebestorder;thencomposeaparagraph,usingthecontrollingideaasyourfirstsentence.,a,13,Thecontrollingidea:SinceIbeganlivinginanapartmentandgoingtoscho

12、ol,mybiggestproblemhasbeenthehousework.,a,14,a）Cookingmyfoodisabiggerproblem.b）Theworstproblemisdoingmylaundry.c）Cleaningtheapartmentisnottoobad;althoughittakestimeawayfrommystudies;atleastwhenIfinishtheapartmentlooksnice.,a,15,d）Sometimesthefoodisburned,sometimesitisnotcookedenough,andsometimesIhav

13、enotmeasuredcorrectly,sothefoodtastesterrible.e）ShoppingformyfoodismoredifficultbecauseIdontknowtheEnglishnamesofmanyfoods,andoftenIhavetospendextratimeaskingforhelp.f）TheLaundromatisfarfrommyapartment,andIwastemuchvaluabletime.,a,16,g）Ihaveneverhadtocookbefore,andusuallytheresultsarediscouraging.h）

14、MostlyIamembarrassedasIsitintheLaundromatwithallthewomen,andsoIwaituntilallmyclothesaredirtybeforeIdothisterribletask.i）Ialsohavetroublewiththecomplicatedinstructions,sooccasionallyIendupwithpinksocksorashirtthatistoosmall.,a,17,3.Transition,Coherencemaynotbeperfectevenifthewriterarrangeshissentence

15、sinaclear,logicalorder.Hehastousegoodtransitionssothatonesentencerunssmoothlytoanother.,a,18,Thefollowingwaysmayhelpthewritertoproduceafluentparagraph:,A)Usingparallelstructures;B)Repeatingwordsorwordsgroups;C)Usingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentences;,a,19,D)Beingconsistentinthepersonandnumbe

16、rofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbs;E)Usingtransitionalexpressions,a,20,a)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforspatialdevelopment:,abovebeforemehereontheleftbelowthereinthedistanceontherightnearbynexttoontopofdowncloseto,a,21,b)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforchronologicaldevelopment:,first,se

17、cond,etcsooneventuallyinthemeantimethenfinallyafteranintervalnowafterpresentlylateratlast,a,22,c)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforanalyticaldevelopment:,first,second,etcforthispurposeasaresultfurthermoremoreoverbutconsequentlyotherwiselikewiseforinstanceinadditiononthecontraryinthiscaseontheother

18、handthusinconclusiontherefore,a,23,d)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcomparison:,anotherfurthermoreequallyimportantbesidesaccordinglyinfactinthesamewayinadditiontosimilarly,a,24,e)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcontrasts:,onthecontrarydifferentfromincontrastinspiteofwhereasyet,butnotonlybut

19、alsothisthattheformerthelattersomeothersstillothersontheonehandontheotherhandthefirstwhereasthesecond,a,25,Exercise:Readthefollowingpassagesandidentifythegrammaticalandlexicalcohesivedevicesinthem.,Understandingandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunisoneofthemostliberatingrealizationswec

20、anevercometo.Itliberatestime:nowwecandevotemorehourstoactivitiesthatcangenuinelyincreaseourhappiness.,a,26,Itliberatesmoney:buyingthatnewcarorthosefancyclothesthatwilldonothingtoincreaseourhappinessnowseemspointless.Itliberatesusfromenvy:wenowunderstandthatallthoserichandglamorouspeopleweweresosurea

21、rehappybecausetheyarealwayshavingsomuchfunactuallymaynotbehappyatall.,a,27,Key:Atleastsixcohesivedevicesareemployedinthispassage.,1).Usepronounstoreplacenounornounphrases.e.g.Understandandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunit;thoserichandglamorouspeoplethey.2).Usedeterminers(the,this,tha

22、t,etc)torefertopreviousnounphrases.e.g.Thatnewcar;thosefancyclothes;thoserichandglamorouspeople.3).Repeatthekeywords.e.g.happiness;fun;liberate.,a,28,4).Usesynonymsorwordsofsimilarmeaningtoexpressthesameidea.e.g.understandingaccepting;timehours;realizationunderstand;moneybuy.5.)userelatedwordforms.e

23、.g.Liberatingliberated,happinesshappy;usourwe6).useparallelstructures.e.g.Itliberatedtime.itliberatedmoneyitliberatedusfromenvy,a,29,Exercise:Readthefollowingparagraphcarefully.Inserttransitionalexpressionswherenecessary.,YankelovichhelpsexplainthedilemmaofAmericanworkers.Mostwanttodotheirbest.Theyd

24、onotworkashardastheycould.Theyfeelthatothersreceivethebenefitoftheirhardwork.Yankelovichdoesntseethisattitudeasasignofaweakworkethic.,a,30,Hefeelstheattitudetowardworkwouldchangeifworkersmademoreofthedecisionsthataffecttheirwork.ThereisamessageformanagersinYankelovichsfindings.Managersneedtoallowwor

25、kerstoexpresstheirneeds.Theyneedtolistentowhatworkerssay.,a,31,.WaysofDevelopingParagraph,1.PlanningaParagraphParagraphsneedtobeplanned.First,thinkofthetopicorthemeofmainidea,andexpressitinacompletesentence(topicsentence).Thenthinkofthedetailsorexamplesorfactsthatmaybeusedtosupportorexplainthemainid

26、ea.Arrangetheminlogicalorder,andyouhavearoughplanoftheparagraph.,a,32,2.DevelopmentbyTime,Intellingastoryorrecountinganevent,theeasiestandclearestwayistodescribethingsinorderoftime:earlierthingsarementionedbeforelaterthings,thefirstthingfirstandthelastthinglast.Thismethodisalsocalledchronologicalseq

27、uencing.,a,33,Forinstance:,MyheartgavealeapwhenIheardtheannouncementthatourtrainwouldsoonarriveatitsdestinationBejing.Likeotherpassengers,Ibegantocollectmythingsandputmymug,towel,atlas,apples,andotherthingsintomybag.Tothetuneofabeautifulsongthetrainpulledintothestationandgentlystoppedbyaplatform.,a,

28、34,Iwalkedoutofthetrainandwascarriedforwardbythestreamofpeopleintoanundergroundpassageandthenintoabighall.AsIsteppedoutofthestation,IwasdazzledbythebrightautumnskiesofBeijing.ThoughIhadbeenonthetrainformorethanthirtyhoursandspentasleeplessnight,Ididntfeeltiredatall,andIbelievedmydaysinBeijingwouldbe

29、assunnyastheskies.,a,35,3.DevelopmentbyProcess,Whenyouhavetoexplainhowsomethingisdone,youusuallyfollowachronologicalsequenceandgiveastep-by-stepdescription.Asthestepsmustoccuroneafteranother,theexactorderinwhichtheyarecarriedoutismostimportant.,a,36,Forexample:,Onceyouencounterapersonwhohasstoppedbr

30、eathing,youshouldbeginimmediatelytodomouth-to-mouthbreathing.First,placethevictimonhisbackandremoveanyforeignmatterfromhismouthwithyourfingers.Thentilthisheadbackwards,sothathischinispointingup.,a,37,Next,pullhismouthopenandhisjawforward,pinchhisnostrilsshuttopreventtheairwhichyoublowintohismouthfro

31、mescapingthroughhisnose.Thenplaceyourmouthtightlyoverthevictims.Blowintohismouthuntilyouseehischestrise.Thenturnyourheadtothesideandlistenfortheoutrushofairwhichindicatesanairexchange.Repeattheprocess.,a,38,4.DevelopmentbySpace,Beforewebegintodescribeaplace,whetheritisalargecountryorasmallroom,wehav

32、etodecideontheorderinwhichtonamethedifferentpartsordetails.Forthisweshouldfindoutthespacerelationshipsbetweenthemandarrangeourdescriptionaccordingly.Itwouldonlyconfusethereadertomentiontheminahaphazardway.,a,39,Forinstance:,Mr.Cook,arenownedAmericanhistorian,arrangesthebooksonhisbookshelvesinaunique

33、way.Intheupperrighthandcorner,therearebooksaboutthedevelopmentoftheearlycoloniesinNewEnglandandtheWarofIndependence.Rightunderthemcanbefoundbooksontheslavetrade,theplantationsystemandthegrowthofthesouthernstates.,a,40,TheleftsideoftheshelfcontainshundredsofbooksconcerningsubjectsoftheWestwardMovemen

34、t,Indianculture,thecowboyscontributionstoAmericansocietyandtheGoldRushinCalifornia.Formthedescriptionabove,onecanseethatMr.CookeregardshisbookshelvesasmapoftheU.S.andarrangeshishistorybooksaccordingly.Itisodd,butitisconvenient.,a,41,5.DevelopmentbyExampleorGeneralization,Supportingatopicsentencewith

35、examplesorillustrationsmakesageneralstatementspecificandeasytounderstand.Anillustrationisacase,aspecimen,aninstance.Vividillustrationlightupabstractideasandmakethemclear,interesting,memorable,orconvincing.,a,42,Ifaparagraphstartswithatopicsentence,thendetailedexamplesorillustrationsaregiventobackupt

36、heopeningstatement,thisisgeneral-to-specificpattern.,a,43,Forinstance:,Mylittleniece,aten-monthbaby,isthemostlovelychildIhaveeverseen.Herfaceislikearedappleandhereyesarelikebrightstars.Whenyoucarryherinyourarms,shelikestoputherarmsaroundyourneck.Allthegrownupsinthefamilyloveherverymuchandoftentrytom

37、akehersmile.Butquiteoftenitisshewhomakesuslaugh.OnceIwinkedatherandshesmiled.,a,44,WhenIdiditagain,shewatchedmeattentively.Thenshetriedtoimitate.Whileweclosedoneeyetowink,shehadtoclosebotheyesatthesametime,andthenquicklyopenedthemagain.Andthatwasherwaytowink.Weallburstintolaughter.Whenwelookedathera

38、gain,shewasstaringatus,puzzled,asifshewasasking:“Whatareyoulaughingat?”,a,45,Anotherpossiblearrangementofdetails(orexamples)inaparagraphisfromthespecifictothegeneral.Thedetailsarementionedfirst,andthegeneralstatement,whichmaybethetopicsentence,comesattheendoftheparagraph,summarizingthemainideaofthep

39、aragraph.,a,46,Forexample:,Whetheryoudoordonotopenagiftinthepresenceofthegiver;whetheryoushouldorshouldnotturntheplateovertolookatthemakerssymbolontheback;whetheryoueatasquietlyorasnoisilyaspossible;whetheryoucarryonaconversationduringameal;whetheryouwalkinfrontoforbehindaseatedperson;,a,47,whetheri

40、tisafriendlyoranoffensivegesturetoputyourhandonthearmsofthepersonwithwhomyouaretalkingtheseandathousandotherquestionsaremattersofculturaldefinition.Noneoftheminherentlyrightorwrong,andnoneisgoodorbadmannersexceptassocietydefinesitso.,a,48,6.DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrast,Themethodofcomparisonand

41、contrastisoftenused.WecomparethepresentandthepastofChina,theculturesoftheeastandwest,ChineseandEnglish.Bycomparisonandcontrastingwemaygetaclearerpictureofthings.,a,49,Strictlyspeaking,acomparisonpointsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentwoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass,whileacontrast,thedifferencesbetwee

42、nthem.Inpractice,however,comparisonandcontrastoftenappeartogether,becausepeoplegenerallycomparetwothingsthataresimilarincertainwaysanddifferentinothers.,a,50,Forinstance:,SomeolepeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeathThebestwaytoovercomeitsoatleastitseemstomeistomakeyourinterestsgraduallywiderandmoreimpe

43、rsonal,untilbitbybitthewallsoftheegorecede,andyourlifebecomesincreasinglyemergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldbelikeariversmallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastrocksandoverwaterfalls.,a,51,Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksrecede,thewatersflowm

44、orequietlyandintheend,withoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Themanwho,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue.(BertrandRussell),a,52,7.DevelopmentbyCauseandEffect,Inourdailyconversation,quest

45、ionswithwhyareoftenaskedandanswered.Thisshowsthatcausalanalysisisverycommon;itissomethingwearefamiliarwith.,a,53,Therearetwobasicwaysoforganizingparagraphsdevelopedbycauseandeffect.Thefirstmethodistostateaneffectanddevotetherestoftheparagraphtoexaminingthecause.,a,54,Forinstance:,thetopicsentenceis:

46、“Inthepastfewyears,highereducationhasbecomelessimportanttoyoungpeoplethanitwaspreviously.”Thisisaneffect.Itshouldbefollowedbyadiscussionofthecausesofthiseffect,suchas“thepressureoffiercecompetition,betteropportunitiesinthejobmarket,muchoftheknowledgetaughtinuniversitiesandcollegesbeingout-dated”,and

47、soforth.,a,55,Thesecondmethodistostateacauseandthenmentionorpredicttheeffects.,Supposethetopicsentenceis:“MoreandmorefertilelandinChinaistakenupbynewbuildings.”Intherestoftheparagraphtheeffectsofthisdevelopmentshouldbementioned,suchas“thereductionofthegrainoutput,increasingenvironmentalproblems,toom

48、anypeasantsmovingintothecities”,etc.,a,56,8.DevelopmentbyClassification,Toclassifyistosortthingsintocategoriesaccordingtotheircharacteristics.Weclassifymanythings:trees,rivers,cities,companies,collegestudents.Wegroupthingsaccordingtotheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.,a,57,Parallelismisessentialtoagood

49、classification.Forexample,ifweclassifytypesofsports,wemayspeakoftrackadfieldevents,swimming,ballgames,gymnastics,etc.ifweclassifysportsintojumping,ballgames,running,floorexerciseandbackstroke,wewouldviolateparallelism,forballgamesshouldbeconsideredageneralcategory,a,58,whilejumpingandrunningaresubca

50、tegoriesofthetrackandfieldevents;gymnasticsisageneralcategory,andfloorexerciseaparticularformofit.Inshort,inagoodclassificationthepartsmustbeparallel,andtheyshouldadduptothewhole.,a,59,Forinstance:,Therearethreekindsofbookowners.Thefirsthasallthestandardsetsandbest-sellersunread,untouched.Thisdelude

51、dindividualownswoodpulpandink,notbooks.Thesecondhasagreatmanybooksafewofthemreadthrough,mostofthemdippedinto,butallofthemascleanasshinyasthedaytheywerebought.,a,60,Thispersonwouldprobablyliketomakebookshisown,butisrestrainedbyafalserespectfortheirphysicalappearance.Thethirdhasafewbooksormanyeveryone

52、ofthemdog-earedanddilapidated,shakenandloosenedbycontinualuse,markedandscribbledinfromfronttoback.(MortimerJ.Adler),a,61,9.DevelopmentbyDefinition,Sometimes,toavoidconfusionormisunderstanding,wehavetodefineaword,term,orconceptwhichisunfamiliartomostreadersoropentovariousinterpretations.Therearethree

53、basicwaystodefineawordorterm:a)togiveasynonym;b)touseasentence(oftenwithanattributiveclause),andc)towriteaparagraphorevenanessay.,a,62,Forinstance:,tomendmeanstorepairafellowisamanoraboy.Inkiscoloredwaterwhichweuseforwriting.,a,63,Butasynonymorasentencecannotgiveasatisfactorydefinitionofanabstractte

54、rmwhosemeaningiscomplex.,a,64,Wehavetowriteaparagraphoranessaywithexamplesornegativeexamples(whatthetermdoesnotmean),comparisons,withclassificationorcause-and-effectanalysis.,a,65,Forinstance:,A“liberatedwoman”issimplyawomanwhocontrolsherownlife,ratherthanallowingittobecontrolledbyotherpeople,tradit

55、ions,orexpectations.A“liberatedwoman”canbefoundpursuinganylineofwork,includinghousework,ornoworkatall.Shemayormaynotbemarried;shemayormaynothavebornechildren.,a,66,Shemaybelongtoanyrace;shemayhaveattainedanyage.Shemaybepoororwealthy,educatedorilliterate.Sheneedhaveonlyonetraitincommonwithher“liberat

56、edsisters”:shemakesherownchoices,whethertheybethecolorsonherwallsoradvanceddegreessheseeks.Sheactsofherownvolition,responsibletoherself,andnotoutoffearofwhathermother,lover,orneighbormightsay.(KlarnerW.Harp),a,67,10.DevelopmentbyaCombinationofMethods,Wehavediscussedquiteafewmethodsfordevelopingparagraphs.Sometimesonlyoneofthe