Individual-Learner-Differences.ppt

1、Chapter 5,Individual Learner Differences and Second Language Acquisition,Sub title,Aspect of SLA influenced by individual learner factors,Identification and classification of learner factors,Introduction,Personal factors,Introduction,The aim of this chapter is to examine the relationship between fac

2、tors (including personality, motivation, learning style, aptitude, age)and second language acquisition(SLA).,Aspect of SLA Influenced by Individual Learner Factors,There are two basic possibilities regarding which aspects of SLA is affected by individual learner factors. The differences in age, lear

3、ning style, aptitude, motivation, and personality result in differences in the route along which learners pass in SLA. The factors influence only the rate and ultimate success of SLA.,Aspect of SLA Influenced by Individual Learner Factors,There are stark disagreements about the role of individual di

4、fferences in SLA. As Fillmore (1979), points out, on the one hand individual differences are seen as an all-important factor, while on the other they are treated as relatively insignificant. Research which has concentrated on accounting for differences in the proficiency levels of learners has tende

5、d to emphasize the importance of individual learner factors. Research which has tried to examine the process of SLA has tended to play down their importance.,Identification and Classification of Learner Factors,Different classifications “affective, cognitive and social factors” (Tucker et al. 1976)

6、“affective and ability factors” (Chastain 1975) “attitudinal/motivational characteristics” (Gardner et al. 1979),Identification and Classification of Learner Factors,Personal and general factors have social, cognitive, and affective aspects. Social aspects are external to the learner and concern the

7、 relationship between the learner and the native speakers of the L2 and also between the learner and other speakers of his own language.,Identification and Classification of Learner Factors,Cognitive and affective aspects are internal to the learner. Cognitive factors concern the nature of the probl

8、em-solving strategies used by the learner, while affective factors concern the emotional responses aroused by the attempts to learn a L2.,Personal Factors,The methodological problem has been solved in two ways. First, through the use of diary studies. e.g. Schumann1977;F.Schumann1980; Bailey1980 Nai

9、man et al.1978,Personal Factors,One, the subject tend to say what they think the researcher wants to hear, or indulge in self-flattery. Two, such techniques can reveal only those factors of which the learner is conscious. Both the diary studies and the questionnaires/interviews have provided insight

10、s into the personal nature of language learning ,particularly classroom language learning.,Personal Factors,group dynamics attitudes to the teacher and course materials learning techniques,Group Dynamics,Facilitating Anxiety Debilitating,Group Dynamics,Bailey1983- anxiety and competitiveness. McDono

11、ugh1978- competitiveness promote confusion but can also be a stimulus. Beiley1983- model: self-imagine can either impair or enhance SLA.,Attitude to the Teacher and Course Materials,Some students prefer a teacher who creates space for them to pursue their own learning path. Others prefer a teacher w

12、ho structures much more tightly. Adult learners dislike having a course book imposed upon them in a rigid way. They prefer a variety of materials and the opportunity to use them in ways they choose for themselves.,Attitude to the Teacher and Course Materials,Stevick1980-some prefer space while other

13、s prefer teachers guidance. Bailey1980-prefer democratic teaching style. Schumann-desire for a personal learning agenda. McDough1978-abide by someone elses teaching plan. Pickett1978-greater diversity in attitudes. Materials: Learners vary in their attitudes.,Individual Learning Techniques,First gro

14、upthose involved in studying the L2 Techniques used to develop vocabulary in the L2(Naiman et al.1978; Pickett 1978) 1.Peparing and memorizing vocabulary lists. 2.Learning words in context,Individual Learning Techniques,3.Practising vocabulary: reading; playing games; repeating words. And still simi

15、lar techniques in the aspect of grammar and pronunciation.,Individual Learning Techniques,Second group-those involved in obtaining L2 input Seeking out situations; making use of radio or cinema; visiting that country.,Thank you,O(_)O,General factors -Age,Age is the variable that has been most freque

16、ntly considered in discussions of individual differences in SLA.,Reason1: it can be described reliably and precisely. Reason2: the empirical investigation the commonly held belief that children are better language learners than adults.,Age,-The effects of age,The effects of age,Conclusion1: Age dont

17、 alter the route of acquisition.,The effects of age,Conclusion2: Older learners are better,The effects of age,Conclusion3: The longer the exposure to the L2, the more native-like L2 proficiency becomes.,Although number of years of exposure to the L2 leads to greater success, this may be restricted t

18、o overall communicative ability, rather than to grammatical or phonological accuracy.,The effects of age,Conclusion4: Success in SLA also appear to be strongly related to the age when SLA is commenced.,As far as success in pronunciation is concerned, younger learners do better.,The effects of age,St

19、arting age does not affect the route of SLA. Starting age affects the rate of learning. Both number of years of exposure and starting age affect the level of success.,The effects of age,1. Cognitive explanations 2. Affective explanations,Explaining the effects of age,Explaining the effects of age,Cr

20、itical Period Hypothesis,There is a period when language acquisition takes place naturally and effortlessly.,Critical Period Hypothesis,Penfield and Roberts(1959) argued that the optimum age for language acquisition falls within the first ten years of life. During this period the brain retains plast

21、icity but with the onset of puberty this plasticity begins to disappear.,列尼博格认为语言习得的关键期是从2岁到青春期（12或13岁）的这段时间。克拉申(Krashen ，1973)认为，5岁是语言潜能发展的高峰期。Bates(1993)认为，在5岁之前，儿童从语言障碍中恢复的可能性最大。尽管意见不一致，但综合各种意见可以看出，语言习得的关键期一般是指从出生到青春期前的这段时间，其中15岁较为关键。在关键期内，通过接触自然的语言环境以及与语言环境的相互作用，儿童会自然学会语言，而错过了关键期，语言学习的 效率会大大降低。,

22、Critical Period Hypothesis,第一、来自于脑损伤与语言恢复关系的研究 列尼博格用大脑语言功能偏侧化的观点对上述现象进行了解释。他认为，在儿童出生的前两年大脑两半球发展语言的潜力是均等的，因此由左右任何半球损伤导致的语言障碍都可以由未损伤半球的功能来弥补。但是随着年龄的增长，大脑的语言功能越来越偏侧化于左半球，左半球成为语言的优势半球，到青春期之后这种偏侧化的过程基本完成。由于上述原因，就使得脑损伤发生的年龄越早，语言恢复的可能性越大，恢复的速度也越快。而成年后发生脑损伤，语言恢复的可能性非常小。,语言习得关键期的证据主要来自三个方面:,Critical Period H

23、ypothesis,第二、来自于语言环境受到剥夺的儿童语言行为的研究。 支持语言习得关键期的最直接证据，来自于一些特殊儿童语言行为的研究。这些儿童的大脑并没有损伤，但是在语言发展的早期，由于剥夺了语言环境，致使后来语言的发展受到不可逆转的损伤。,Critical Period Hypothesis,在70年代初,美国曾发生了一起罕见的虐待儿童案件。一位叫吉妮的女孩，在其出生20个月后，被其暴虐的父亲囚禁在小屋中达12 年之久。这期间，她既听不到声音，也看不到电视，而且只要她发出任何声音，便遭到父亲的毒打。她由盲人的母亲定时喂饭，她的母亲由于惧怕丈夫，很少与吉妮交谈。吉妮直到13 岁时才被人发现

24、，这时她完全不能说话。后来语言专家对其进行了长达7年之久的认真细致的语言训练，但是她的语言表达远比同龄儿童差。她不会使用冠词、代名词、助动词、动词时态等，说出的句子仍是语法错误的句子。这一案例，较直接地为语言习得存在关键期这一事实提供了证据。,Critical Period Hypothesis,三 是来自于第二语言学习的研究 有科学家研究了母语为朝鲜语和汉语的被试，在英语的环境下对英语语法的掌握情况。这些被试到达美国的时间从3岁到39岁不等。在实验中，被试被分成两组，一组是15岁之前到达美国的；另一组是17岁之后到达美国的。两组被试平均在美国已生活了9年。被试的任务是判断口语句子是否符合语法

25、。结果发现,到达美国的年龄越早，语法掌握的程度越好，其中3-7岁到美国的儿童能够获得如同本土美国人一样的语言流畅性。8岁后，测验成绩开始下降。总的来看，学习英语的年龄越晚，学习者对英语语法的掌握程度越差，但成绩下降的趋势是平缓的。英语语法学习存在着一定的关键年龄，其中8岁之前学习英语者的成绩最好，但过了一定的关键年龄，并不是语言的学习完全不可能，只是学习的效果不如关键期内学习的效果好。,Cognitive Explanations,Cognitive Explanations,Halliday(1973) pointed out, the young child responds not so

26、 much to what language is as to what it does. Older learners can learn about language by consciously studying linguistic rules. They can also apply these rules when they use the language. In contrast, younger children, while not totally lacking in meta-awareness, are not so prone to respond to langu

27、age as form.,Cognitive Explanations,Rosansky(1975) has argued that cognitive development accounts for the greater ease with which young children learn language. She believes that L2 development can take place in two different ways, according to whether or not the learner is aware of what he is doing

28、. The young child sees only similarities, lacks flexible thinking, and is self-concerned. In contrast, the adult cant learn a L2 automatically and naturally. It is the awareness that comes with age that inhibits natural learning and that leads to an alternative approach.,Cognitive Explanations,Probl

29、ems: the meta-awareness that comes with Formal Operations may facilitate more efficient learning. Q1 Why is there no advantage in pronunciation seen in the adolescent learner? Of all aspects of language it is pronunciation that is the least amenable to conscious manipulation. Q2 Why the adolescent o

30、utperforms the adults? Adolescents may have better memories than adults.,Affective Explanations,Affective Explanations,Acculturation is the ability of the learner to relate and respond easily to the foreign language culture. Four Stages:1.initial excitement and euphoria 2.cultural shock (leads to fe

31、elings of estrangement and hostility towards the target culture) 3.culture stress (involves a gradual and vacillating recovery) 4.assimilation or adaption to the new culture,Affective Explanations,Young children are seen as socio-culturally resilient because they are less culture-bound than adults.

32、They move through the stages of acculturation more quickly and so acquire the L2 more quickly.,Affective Explanations,Neufeld(1978) distinguishes “primary” and “secondary” levels of language. Primary levels include a reasonably large functional vocabulary, and basic mastery of pronunciation and gram

33、matical rules. Secondary levels include the ability to handle complex grammatical structures and different language styles.,Affective Explanations,All learners, according to Neufeld, have an innate ability to acquire primary levels. However, children are more likely to achieve secondary levels than

34、adults because they are much more strongly motivated by the need to be accepted by their peer groups. Whereas the adults is happy to maintain a foreign accent.,Intelligence and Aptitude,Intelligence is a general academic or reasoning ability.,Aptitude is the specific cognitive qualities needed for S

35、LA.,Intelligence,As McDonough(1981:26) emphasizes that intelligence refers to capacity rather than contents of the mind. Thats, it is the underlying ability to learn, rather than the actual knowledge that is supposedly measured by intelligence tests.,Intelligence,One of the problems is that the “g”

36、factor does not appear to be an essential factor in L1 acquisition. All children, except those who are severely mentally retarded, succeed in developing grammatical competence in their L1.,Intelligence,Cummins(1979) distinguishes two kinds of language ability: (1)Cognitiveacademic language ability (

37、CALP): this is the dimension of language proficiency which is strongly related to overall cognitive and academic skills and can be equated with Oller and Perkins “g” factor and general intelligence.,Intelligence,(2) Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS)：these are the skills required for or

38、al fluency and also include sociolinguistic aspects of competence. Cummins argues that CALP and BICS are independent and that both sets of abilities are to be found in L1 and L2 acquisition. Different measures of language proficiency are likely to tap both abilities in varying proportions.,Intellige

39、nce,To conclude, intelligence may influence the acquisition of some skills associated with SLA, such as those utilized in the formal study of a L2, but it is much less likely to influence the acquisition of oral fluency skills. The effects of intelligence are limited to the rate and success of SLA,

40、rather than the route.,Aptitude,Aptitude,Carroll and Sapon(1959) indentify three major components of aptitude: (1)phonetic coding ability: the ability to perceive and memorize new sounds. (2)grammatical sensitivity: the individuals ability to demonstrate awareness of the syntactical patterning of se

41、ntences of a language. (3)inductive ability: the ability to notice and identify similarities and differences in both grammatical form and meaning.,Aptitude,In this view of aptitude, which is shared with Pimsleurs Language Aptitude Battery, the emphasis is on “a composite of different characteristics

42、”.,Aptitude,Although the results of studies such as Gardners can be used to support claims about the importance of aptitude as a factor in SLA. Many doubts remains. (1)what cognitive process are subsumed under the label of aptitude? (2)what extent intelligence and aptitude are separate concepts? (3)

43、what aspects of SLA is affected by aptitude?,Aptitude,There is no evidence to suggest that aptitude has any effect on the route. Aptitude, however, can be expected to influence the rate of development, particularly where formal classroom learning is concerned. Aptitude is also likely to affect ultim

44、ate success in SLA, particularly if this is measured by formal tests of linguistic competence.,General factors,age,aptitude,cognitive style,motivation,personality,Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information. 认知风格也称认知

45、方式，是指个体在认知过程中所表现出来的习惯化的行为模式。 认知风格种类繁多，如场独立型和场依存型、思索型和冲动型、整体型和分析型。,P114,Field dependent 场依存型,Field independent 场独立型,1 Personal orientation i.e. reliance on external frame of reference in processing information 2 Holistic i.e. perceives a field as a whole; parts are fused with background 3 Dependent i

46、.e. the self-view is derived from others 4 Socially sensitive i.e. greater skill in interpersonal/social relationships,1 Impersonal orientation i.e. reliance on internal frame of reference in processing information 2 Analytic i.e. perceives a field in terms of its components parts; parts are disting

47、uished from background 3 Independent i.e. sense of separate identity 4 Not so socially aware i.e. less skilled in interpersonal/social relationships,P115,One of the most interesting is the suggestion that field dependence will prove most facilitative in naturalistic SLA, but field independence will

48、lead to greater success in classroom learning.,greater social skills,more frequent contact,more input,greater ability to analyse the formal rules of the language,P114, Last Para., L2,P115, Para.1, L4,镶嵌图形测验 (Witkin et al. 1971) It requires the subject to perceive a simple geometric figure within a l

49、arger more complex design.,P115, Para.1, L9,But, the learners investigated in this way have been invariably classroom learners. The results are not conclusive.,Bialystok and Frohlich (1977) Naiman et al. (1978),The effects of cognitive style are age-related.,Hansen and Stansfield (1981),Cognitive st

50、yle played only a minor role.,In general, field dependence/independence dose not appear to be an important factor in SLA.,Quantitative studies Qualitative approach (focuses on the actual utterances of individual learners),Naiman et al. (1978) Fillmore (1980) P116, Para.2, L7,The existing research do

51、es not conclusively show that it is a major factor where success is concerned. There has been no research into the effects of cognitive style on route of acquisition. P116, Para.3, L2,Brown (1981) identifies three types of motivation global motivation 整体动机 指对外语学习的一般动机 (2)situational motivation 情景动机

52、指自然习得情况下学习者不同于课堂学习者的动机 (3)task motivation 任务动机 指对具体任务的动机,P117, Para.1, L11,Gardner and Lambert draw a basic distinction between an integrative and an instrumental orientation to L2 learning.,It occurs when the learner wishes to identify with the culture of the L2 group. Mowrer (1960) L1 learning Gar

53、dner (1979) “additive bilingualism”,It occurs when the learners goals for learning the L2 are functional. Fitzgerald (1978) ethnic minorities Gardner (1979) “subtractive bilingualism”,The integrative/instrumental distinction reflects a continuum.,P117, Para.2,Gardner and Lambert have investigated di

54、fferent attitudes. Stern (1983:376-7) classifies these attitudes into three types: (1)对目的语社团和语者的态度 (2)对学习目的语的态度 (3)对语言和学习语言的一般态度,These attitudes are influenced by the kind of personality of learners, and by the social milieu in which learning takes place.,P118, Para.2, L3,Summary P118, Para.3 (1) 动机

55、是决定不同学习者取得不同程度的成功的主要因素; (2) 动机的作用与潜能(aptitude)的作用不同，最成功的学习者是既有潜能又有强烈学习动机的人; (3) 有些情况下，融入型动机有助于成功掌握外語，有时工具型动机也能。有时两种动机同时起作用; (4) 动机的类型与社会环境有关; (5) 动机主要影响外语习得的速度(rate)，但对习得的过程(route)并无影响。,Extroversion/introversion 外向型/内向型,假设 Extroverted learners learn more rapidly and are more successful than introverted learners.,Krashen (1981a) argues that an outgoing personality may contribute to acquisition. The classroom learne