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1、英语语言学,Introduction,语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.,普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General lin
2、guistics.,应用语言学Applied Linguistics The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the tea
3、ching of foreign and second language.,识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。,Arbitrariness任意性 ; Productivity/Creativity多产性/创造性; Duality双重性; Displacement移位性; Cultural tra
4、nsmission文化传递,Design Features,(1)arbitrariness任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念;同样的声音,各国不同的表达方式,Design
5、 Features,(2)Duality双层结构 Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. 语言由声音结构和意义结构组成,Design Features,(3)Productivity多产性 Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子,是由双层结构造成的结果,Design Features,Displacement移位性 Language can be use
6、d to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 可以表达许多不在场的东西,如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情,或者表达根本不存在的东西等,Design Features,Cultural transmission文化传播性 Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed th
7、at language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握,Important distinctions in linguistics,规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should s
8、ay and what should not say. 着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态,如标准语法/语音等,为规定人们如何说话、写作,描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 着重于语言中“事实Facts”,目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的,Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mai
9、nly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的,其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。,traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性的,研究高级书面语。,历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the hi
10、storical development of language over a period of time. 研究语言各个阶段的发展变化,研究语言的历史发展规律,共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象,如现代汉语研究、莎士比亚时代语言研究等,Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states
11、of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 现代语言学主要是共时性的,重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究,否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。,Langue 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is u
12、sed for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.,Functions of Language语言的功能,传达信息功能 Informative:最主要功能(The main function) 人际功能 Interpersonal: 人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能(establish and maintain their identity) 行事功能 performative: 现实应用判刑、咒语、为船命名等(Jud
13、ge,naming,and curses),表情功能 Emotive: 表达强烈情感的语言,如感叹词/句(exclamatory expressions) 寒暄功能 Phatic: 应酬话(phatic language),比如“吃了没?”“天儿真好啊!” 等等 元语言功能 Metalingual:用语言来谈论、改变语言本身,如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”,语言学的分支,核心语言学 Core linguistic: 语音学 Phonetics :关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程,着重考察人类语言中的单音。Its main focus is on th
14、e articulation, transmission and reception of human sounds, especially isolated sounds,音位学Phonology:从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective.,形态学 Morphology:研究单词的内部构造和构词规则the internal structure of words and the rul
15、es by which words are formed,句法学 Syntax:研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.,语义学 Semantics:对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究,以研究词义和句义为主its the systemic studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning,语用学 Pragmatics:从语言同使用者之间的关系出发,研究在实际交际
16、in real-time communication contexts中影响人们语言使用的各种因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。,边缘语言学 Peripheral: psycho-linguistics (心理语言学) socio-linguistics (社会语言学) anthropological linguistics(人类语言学) neurological linguistics(神经语言学) mathematical linguistics(数字语言学) computat
17、ional linguistics(计算机语言学),Language and Culture,Language is the carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体,文化通过语言的使用得到更好的体现。,Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis,Our language will mould our view of the world.语言影响我们对世界的看法的形成。 1:linguistic determinismlanguage may determi
18、ne our thinking patterns语言决定论,语言有可能决定我们的思维方式,2:linguistic relativitysimilarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.语言相对论,语言之间的相似性是相对的,结构差异越大,人们认识世界的方式越多样,语音学Phonetics,The study of sounds, which
19、are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.(语音学) 语音学的分支 1. 发音语言学 Articulatory phonetics:研究语音产生的方式,这是普通语言学主要研究的分支 2. 声学语言学Acoustic phonetics 3. 听觉语言学Auditory phonetics,语音学中两个重要概念,言语语音Speech sounds: 是语音学研究的对象,亦可叫做音段Segment或者音素Phone; 分为两种:辅音consonants 和元音vowels,发音器官Speech organs,肺the lun
20、gs 气管the trachea 声带the Vocal Cords:位于咽喉the Larynx中 咽喉突出的部分叫喉结The Adams Apple 三个回声腔:咽腔the Pharynx、口腔the oral cavity和鼻腔the nasal cavity,Consonants辅音,概念:发音过程中产生了气流阻塞的那些音 The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonant
21、s. 分类:三类划分发音部位Places of articulation 、发音方式Manners of articulation和清浊特征,按照发音部位places of articulation: 唇间音bilabial:/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ 唇齿音labiodental:/f/ /v/ 齿间音dental:/ /, 牙龈音alveolar:/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ 龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar:/t/ /d/ / / 硬腭音Palatal:/j/ 软腭音Velar: /k/ /g/ /w/ / 喉音glottal:/
22、h/,按照发音方式manners of articulation 完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/爆破音plosives/stops: /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/ 鼻音nasals:/m/ /n/ / / 擦音fricatives:/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ / / / / h / / / / 塞擦音affricates:/ts/ /dz/ / t / / d / /tr/ /dr/, 流音liquids: /r/ /l/ 滑音/半元音glides/semivowels:/w/ /j/ 接近辅音approximants: /r/ /j/ /w
23、/ 中央流音central 边流音lateral:/l/,特征 清浊特征Voicing 分类:浊辅音voiced consonants 清辅音voiceless consonants 体现形式:声带是否震动in the vibration of the vocal cords E.g:/p/ 和/d/,清音Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are
24、 called voiceless sounds. 浊音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.,送气特征Aspiration articulated with a strong air stream pushing out 只有爆破音和破擦音有送气与否的区别 不造成词义改变,是非区别性特征 E.g:/p/ 在please中送气,在speak中不送气,区别性特征Distinctive Features 可以用来区分不同音位(phonetic voicing)如清浊特
25、征,但送气特征就不是 区别性特征一般都是双元Binary的 (+voicing/ -voicing),元音Vowels,概念:发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞的音 The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.,分类: 舌翘位置the part of the tongue that is raised、 舌高the
26、extent to which the tongue rises 嘴唇的形状the shape of the lips,舌翘: front/i/ /e/ /a/; back/o/ /u/ 舌高: high/i/ /u/;mid/e/ /o/;low/a/ 唇形: unrounded/i/ /e/ /a/;rounded/o/ /u/,/a/: front, low, unrounded /e/:front, mid, unrounded /i/: front, high, unrounded /o/: back, mid, rounded /u/: back, high, rounded,Cl
27、assification of English vowels英语元音的分类,标准元音Cardinal vowels:由一组任意确定的元音组成,这些元音都是作为抽象的单位存在,为描述现实语音中的元音提供一个参考框架,由琼斯提出。,单元音Monophthongs 双元音Diphthongs:有两个音组成纯元音pure vowel+短促的滑音brief gliding sound,由前音滑向后音,又称元音过渡Vowel Glides 三元音Triphthongs,Coarticulation 协同发音,语音同化 Co-articulation或Assimilation: 在一个语音群中,一个语音总会
28、带上其附近语音的某种性质,这个现象就成为语音同化。最明显的就是鼻化,如can一词中,a的音会带上后面的鼻音n,先期协同发音Anticipatory Coarticulation The sound becomes more like the following sound.前一个音受到后一个音的影响 后滞协同发音Preservative Coarticulation The sound becomes more like the preceding sound.后一个音受到前一个音的影响,国际音标图IPA chart: 全称是International Phonetic Alphabet,由国
29、际语音协会IPA=International Phonetic Association在1888年首次确定,Phonetic Transcription标音,Orthographic representation of speech sounds:Broad and narrow transcriptions(语音的正字法表征:宽式/窄式标音),Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only (代表字母的符号) Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-
30、symbols together with the diacritics (变音符) E.g.: lli:f- a clear l (no diacritic) lbild-a dark l (),音位学Phonology,The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. (音系学) 广义音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般性特征研究,可以包括语音学; 狭义的音位学主要研究言语语音组合方式模式及变化,普通语言学取其狭义,音位学与语音学的区别: Phonetics 着重语言的
31、自然属性physical properties,关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音,是音位学研究的基础; Phonology着重强调语音的社会功能social functions,对象是某种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音,音素phone A phonetic unit or segment. it does not necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language.,音位Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collectio
32、n of distinctive phonetic features. 音位变体Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.,音位Phoneme: 在语言中具有区别表义单位作用的最小语音单位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words, E.g: pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是独立的
33、音位。,音位变体Allophones: 没有区分表义单位作用的音段(segment) E.g:同样/p/音,在speak和please中读音却有差别,若把两个有差别的/p/音调换位置,并不会改变单词意义,只是有点别扭。所以,这两音就叫做/p/的音位变体。,Phoneme和Allophone的区别:音位具有区别性,是抽象、理想化的单位,具有系统性;音位变体都属于同一个音位,他们共同代表或者源于音位,是音位在实际环境中的体现。,最小语音对Minimal Pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one
34、 sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 两个词互相之间的差别只是一个音段,就是最小语音对;可以确定某个音段是否为音位 E.g:pen 和pin就是M-p,可以确定/e/和/i/,两种分布关系 对比性分布Contrastive Distribution 若两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中而产生了两个不同的单词,则处于对比性分布关系。 最小语音对中的不同音段就是这种关系。,互补性分布Complementary distrib
35、ution Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 若两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中,则它们之间就是互补性分布的关系。 E.g:送气的p(peak)绝不会出现在s之后,而不送气的p(speak)也不会出现在词首,自由变体Free variation 如果两个音段出现在相同的环境中,但并未产生两个不同的单词,那么它们就是同一个音位的自由变体。 E.g:将act中失去爆破的/k/换成爆破的/k/是很常见的,但并不会造成单词意义的变化。,区别性特征Distinct
36、ive Features 清浊特征、发音位置以及发音方式,超音段音位学Suprasegmental Phonology The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress重音,syllable音节, intonation声调 and tone语调.,概念:对大于音段的语音单位如音节、单词和句子的语音特征进行的研究。主要包括:重音Stress,音长Leng
37、th,音高Pitch和此三者共同作用的结果语调intonation。,重音stress:分为单词重音和句子重音 单词重音:位置固定,可分为三级零zero重音,次secondary重音,和主要primary重音,句子重音: 结构重音structural:句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读,如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重读,强调重音contrastive:指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调,句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节,语法重音grammatical:约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音,如重读实词,轻读
38、虚词等,音高pitch:指某个语音单位(音段或者超音段)因为发音时声带震颤的快慢而导致的声音高低之分。某些语言中,音高变化起区别性作用,如汉语的四声tone,音节Syllable:大于音段但小于单词的单位;单词可以分为单音节词monosyllabic word和多音节词polysyllabic word 音节结构: 音节头onset一般为辅音 节峰/节核Peak/nucleus:核心部分,由元音担任,不可或缺 节尾coda:一般为辅音,辅音群Consonant cluster: 几个辅音组合在一起成为单词的一部分,称为辅音群。 一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过3个辅音,作为节尾的不能超过4个辅
39、音,Consonant cluster,If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/,形态学Morphology,The study of the way
40、 in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.(形态学)It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 研究单词内部结构及其构成的规则,语素Morpheme:研究的basic unit,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或者彻底改变词汇/语法意义的单位,desire是a morpheme,desir+able就是two morphemes,词素Lexemes:就是“同底数幂”的概念,是
41、一组词的共有因子,如writer、writing、wrote等拥有的write就是词素,必须有一群词,自由语素free morpheme:可以独立出现、独立成词的语素。如girl,rely等 黏着语素bound morpheme:必须与其它语素一起出现的语素,词缀居多。如pre-,-al,-ment,dis-等,语素变体Allomorph:相对抽象,是语素的实际体现,不改变词义,但会在形式上有所变化,similar to allophone,词根Root:单词的基础,无法再分割成更小的单位。两类:若词根是自由语素,则为自由词根(大部分都是free),否则是黏着词根(如-pal,-ceive,-
42、tain,-vert),词干Stem:是可以附加词缀的语素或者语素群:friend in friends;friendship in friendships,词干词根,如education是词干,词根是educate,词缀Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.,曲折词缀inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the
43、 addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 派生词缀Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.,词语Word:词的三种含义a physically definable unit, a common factor underlying a set of forms, a grammatical
44、 unit,介于词组和语素之间,实词Lexical words:传递实际语义内容的词,包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv. 虚词Functional words:承担语法意义、执行句法或结构功能的词,包括prep. Articles冠词,pronoun. Conj.连词等,开放词open classes:可无限容纳新成员的词,如名形、部分动词/副词等; 封闭词类closed classes:无法或很难容纳新成员的词,如介代连指情态等,词的屈折变化Inflection:其实就是在原词上加上屈折词缀的语法关系的表现,如数,人称,有定性,体和格,-ed,-ing,-s etc.
45、不会改变词义,也不会引起词的语法类别的改变。 Table-tables, talk-talked,复合词Compound:有一个以上的词汇语素构成的词,或者由两个独立的词链接起来构成新的形式,如icecream, sunrise,词的派生变化Derivation:主要是词根和词缀之间的关系,词缀affix既可以是前缀prefix,也可以是后缀suffix, 如conscious-unconscious, nation-national,三种语言: 黏着语言Agglutinating or Agglutinative Language:在英语中一般用介词、所有格来表达的概念,在黏着语言中一般作为
46、语素出现在一个单词中,曲折语言Inflecting Language:指那些大量使用曲折形式的语言 孤立语言Isolated Language/分析语言Analytical Language:一般使用独立的词语来表示单独的概念和功能。中文为此类的典型代表。,造词的几种形式,新创词语Invention:直接来自消费品,它们的生产者或商品名称,如Coke, nylon, Kodak 混成法Blending:两个单词混合在一起构成新词,取一词之前,另一词之后。如smoke+fog=smog,缩写语Abbreviation/截断法Clipping:将一个单词截断成长度稍短的形式,如adadvertis
47、ement等 首字母缩写Acronym:将几个单词的首字母组合在一起而形成的新词。如UN=United Nations,逆构词法Back-formation:从一个长单词中删去一个看似是词缀的部分,形成这个长词的一个变体形式,从而造词。如edit来源于editor,televise来源于television,类推造词Analogical Creation:动词变化全部想当然根据规则变化,如work的过去分词想成wrought 和worked两种形式 借词Borrowing:直接从外语中借用词语的造词过程,如sofa,tofu等,词的语义变化,词义扩大 broadening: 把意义从原来具体的
48、意思扩充到相对概括的意思。如holiday 词义缩小 narrowing:原来的词义缩小或限制到一个明确的意义上。如meat(食物肉类),词义转移 meaning shift:在隐喻用法中离开了原来的语义领域。如bead(祈祷-念珠-小圆珠子) 词性变化 class shift:词性的变化会改变词义,从指某种具体的实体或概念变为指某种方法或属性,如hog(猪-贪心攫取),俗词源 folk etymology:词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生,如sparrowgrass-asparagus(芦笋)
49、,句法学Syntax,The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax(句法学). 研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语构成的句子的规则 the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.,Syntactic Relation句法关系 横组合关系Syntagmatic relations/线形关系Linear relations:即词序word order,指句子中单词的链状顺序关系 纵聚合关系Paradigmatic re
50、lations:把句子各个位置当成插槽Slot,则同义或相近词都可填入此槽,这就是词间纵聚合关系,Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussures syntactic theory. 词的横组合及纵聚合关系是索绪尔句法理论的重要组成部分,直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis:通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段,语法范畴Grammatical Categories:指代名词、动词等此类的标志性特征,名词:性Gender,
51、数 Number,格Case 【性:阴性Feminine和阳性Masculine以及中性Neuter;数:单数Singular和双数Dual;格:代词主格Nominative,宾格Accusative,名词一般格General和所有格Genitive】,动词:时态 Tense,体态Aspect,语态Voice,句子:the maximum free form最大的语法分析单位,句子关系: 一致关系Agreement:两个或更多单词在某个特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致,主要表现在主谓、修饰语和被修饰语之间。如this man/these men,支配关系Government:一个或几个单词因
52、受到其他相邻词语的支配而必须与或者保持某个范畴的一致,如代词在动词后必须成宾格状态beat him等,句子的扩展Extension of sentence 三种方法:结合Conjoining,嵌入Embedding和递归Recursiveness,句子结构 向心结构Endocentric construction:具有核心的结构体。分为从属Subordinate(e.g. poor John)和平行Coordinate(e.g. boys and girls) 离心结构Exocentric construction:没有核心的结构体,任何一个成分都无法代替他本身。e.g. on the she
53、lf,句子以上的句法Syntax beyond the sentence:主要研究段落和篇章中句与句的句法关系,主要是语篇语言学Text linguistic。,语法全由Chomsky提出,转换生成语法:Transformational-Generative grammar简作TG Grammar:认为所有语言形式都是由人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列转换规则衍生而来,普遍语法:Universal Grammar:一切人类语言必须具备的原则、条件和规则系统,叫做普遍语法或者语言普遍现象,他认为研究的目的就是去寻找普遍语法。,语言习得机制 Language Acquisition Device简作
54、LAD:儿童天生具备学习一切语言的能力,从而表达无限的思想,句法结构,深层结构Deep Structure:抽象的句法结构,位于于语法生成模式的最深层,句子各部分之间的结构关系在这个层次都被清晰清楚表现出来 表层结构Surface Structure:通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后结果,是说话人实际说出的句子。,系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar:由英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K. Halliday发展出的一套语法体系,区分转换生成语法 Halliday系统功能语法:关注语言和社会之间的关系;认为语言是A form of doing, 研究语言与环境的关系;重视
55、个别语言及个别变体的描写,Chomsky转换生成语法:从心理学角度研究语言;认为语言是A form of knowing,着重于语言使用者头脑里的知识结构;重视发现语言的普通现象,语义学Semantics,The study of meaning in language is called semantics. (语义学) Some views concerning the study of meaning 关于意义研究的一些观点 the naming theory命名论 the conceptualist view概念论 contextualism: John Firth 语境论 behav
56、iorism: Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view,the conceptualist view概念论 Thought/reference concept 思想/指称 Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式 Referent (real object)所指,语义学的七种意义Geoffrey Leech: 七种意义可以被分成三大类:概念意义Conceptual, 联想意义Associative and 主题意义Thematic Meanings,概念意义Conceptual Meaning:是Leech理论的中心Core概念,表示
57、单词和其所指代的事物之间的关系,类似于“Reference”,联想意义Associative Meaning: 五小类内涵Connotative意义,社会Social意义,情感Affective意义,反映Reflected意义和搭配Collocative意义,内涵Connotative意义:指在交际中语言所传达出来的意思 社会Social意义:使用语言时传达出的有关社会场合的信息,情感Affective意义:指说话人或作者表达出来的情感或态度 反映Reflected意义:通过联想某个表达法的别种意义而产生出来的意义 搭配Collocative意义:通过联想经常同现于一个语境中的单词而产生的意义
58、,主题意义Thematic Meanings:通过信息的组织方式而传达的意义what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis,语义关系Sense Relations 三种:同义关系Synonymy,反义关系Antonymy,上下义关系Hyponymy,同义词Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are clos
59、e in meaning are called synonyms.,反义词Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.,同音(形)异义Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.,同音异义Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 同形异义Homographs It refers to t
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