saving00资料lr porta 读本

1、Sapere AudeLR PortaVelle Est PosseLR PortaSELECTED TEXTS FORADVANCED ACADEMIC READING1Alea Iacta EstAlios Ego Vidi VentosScio Me Nihil Scire读本使用说明读本是什么？一系列经过精心挑选的学术文献的集合。读本会带给你什么？知识将读本文章读懂之后，你会获得历史、政治、经济、社会、哲学领域的基础知识，也就是说，你会知道谈论这些学科的人到底在谈论什么。你会了解听说过、但仍不知其具体含义的概念，比如革命、工业革命、工业化、改革，再比如市场、劳动力、土地。你也会知道，热

2、门话题的背后是什么概念的组合，以及它们的渊源。比如，原来关于人工智能的讨论，本质上是讨论意识、人脑、程序。思辨如果你再耐心一些，可以想想这些文章的作者（他们都是学术大咖）是怎么思考这些话题的，他们提出了什么观点，他们给出了什么理由支持自己的观点，他们又如何反驳不同意见的。他们的思路对于你打磨自己的思辨力一定会有所帮助。语言这些文章的写作语言都是英语。如果你能读完这些文章，相信英语不会成为你获取信息的阻碍。看不懂也没关系如果你是第一次接触人文题材的英语学术文献，那么看不懂很正常。如果你仍然对这些英文文献能带给你的东西感兴趣，可以继续往下读。判断自己看不懂文章的原因细心的同学会发现，读本中的文章分

3、了难度梯度，包含 Level I, Level II, Level III, Level IV。每个梯度用了 4 个方面描述，包括 Descriptive（描2Sapere AudeLR PortaVelle Est Posse述）, Analytical（分析）, Persuasive（说服）, Critical（批度梯度越高、内容越抽象的文章，后面两个方面的比重越大。如果你在 Level I和 Level II 就读不下去了，那么说明你的问题在语言。如果 Persuasive 和Critical 比重大的文章无法读懂，就说明你的思辨能力有待加强，也就是分辨文章逻辑结构的能力需要提高。如果是

4、逻辑问题更大，那么你可以着重练习如何梳理文章结构。如果是语言问题更大，那么你可以从语言方面入手开始练习。 看不懂可以怎么办？o 练习阅读学术文献如果你掌握了阅读学术文献的基本方法， 那么可以用读本作为持续练习的入手材料。比如，你可以尝试找出文章的论点和论证过程，然后画出这篇文章的思维导图。如果你不知道如何阅读学术文献，在 LR Porta当代学术文献阅读课程中会教给大家阅读学术文献的方法。o 练习阅读英文文本语言的本质是通过编码和解码进行信息传递。如果你知道编码的规则， 自然就能解码。比如，你可以学习常见的学术词汇（约 3000 个），掌握单词、短语、从句的功能（也就是语法），进而掌握句子主干

5、所表达的意思，以及整段、整篇文章所表达的意思。如果你对上述方法并不熟悉，亦或听了很多课，但是仍然存在问题，LR Porta 的语言精通工具包介绍了如何快速学习一门语言，如果你想掌握高效学习任何一门语言的方法，欢迎你来。敢于知道，因为真理使你自由Sapere Aude quia Veritas Vos Liberabit.3Alea Iacta EstAlios Ego Vidi VentosScio Me Nihil ScireContentsLevel I5THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIETY6THE REFORMA

6、TION: THE SHATTERING OF CHRISTIAN UNITY22Level II51TWO PASSAGES ON REFORMATION52THREE PASSAGES ON THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION64Level III82THE ORIGINS OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS83THE SELF-REGULATING MARKET AND THE FICTITIOUS COMMODITIOUS COMMODITIES: LABOR, LAND, AND MONEY90THE HISTORIAN AND HIS FACTS98

7、Level IV113THE USE OF KNOWLEDGE IN SOCIETY114MINDS, BRAINS, AND PROGRAMS125WHAT MARY DIDNT KNOW1364Sapere AudeLR PortaVelle Est PosseLevel IDescriptive Analytical Persuasive Critical 5Alea Iacta EstAlios Ego Vidi VentosScio Me Nihil ScireTHE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE TRANSFORMATION OFSOCIETYPerry,

8、M. (2015). Western Civilization: A Brief History. Cengage Learning. 294-307I. BRITAIN FIRSTChanges in technologyII. SOCIETY TRANSFORMEDChanges in social structure | Working-class lifeIII. THE RISE OF REFORM IN BRITAINIV. RESPONSES TO INDUSTRIALIZATIONLiberalism | Early socialismV. INDUSTRIALIZATION

9、IN PERSPECTIVEIntroductionIn the last part of the eighteenth century, as a revolution for liberty and equalityswept across France and sent shock waves through Europe, a different kind of revolution, a revolution in industry, was transforming life in Great Britain. In the nineteenth century, the Indu

10、strial Revolution spread to the United States and to the European continent. Today, it encompasses virtually the entire world; everywhere the drive to substitute machines for human labor continues at a rapid pace.After 1760, dramatic changes occurred in Britain in the way goods were produced andlabo

11、r organized. New forms of power, particularly steam, replaced animal strength and human muscle. Better ways of obtaining and using raw materials were discovered, and a new way of organizing production and workersthe factorycame into use. In the nineteenth century, technology moved from triumph to tr

12、iumph with a momentum unprecedented in human history. The resulting explosion in economic production and productivity transformed society with breathtaking speed.6Sapere AudeLR PortaVelle Est PosseI. Britain FirstBritain possessed several advantages that enabled it to take the lead inindustrializati

13、on. Large and easily developed supplies of coal and iron had given the British a long tradition of metallurgy and mining. In the early stages of industrialization, Britains river transportation system was supplemented by canals and toll roads (turnpikes), which private entrepreneurs financed and bui

14、lt for profit. In addition, the enclosure movement provided factories with a labor pool. During the eighteenth century great landlords enclosed, or fenced off and claimed as their own, land formerly used in common by villagers for grazing farm animals. Once the peasants were gone, lords could bring

15、this land under cultivation for their own private gain. No longer able to earn a living from the land, these dispossessed farmers sought work in emerging factories.Britain also had capital available for investment in new industries. These funds camefrom wealthy landowners and merchants who had grown

16、 rich through commerce, including the slave trade. Interest rates on loans fell in the eighteenth century, stimulating investment. Britains expanding middle class provided a home market for emerging industries. So, too, did its overseas colonies, which also supplied raw materialsparticularly cotton,

17、 needed for the developing textile industry. A vigorous spirit of enterprise and the opportunity for men of ability to rise from common origins to riches and fame also help explain the growth of industrialization.Finally, two European cultural traditions in which Britain shared played crucial rolesi

18、n the rise of industrialism. One was individualism, which had its roots in both the Renaissance and the Reformation; during the era of the commercial revolution, it manifested itself in hard-driving, ambitious merchants and bankers. This spirit of individualism, combined with the wide latitude state

19、s gave to private economic activity, fostered the development of dynamic capitalist entrepreneurs. The second cultural tradition promoting industrialization was the high value westerners placed on the rational understanding and control of nature. Both individualism and the tradition of reason, concl

20、udes historian David S. Landes, “gave Europe a tremendous advantage in the invention and adoption of new technology. The will to mastery, the rational approach to problems that we call scientific method, the competition for wealth and power together these broke down the resistance of inherited ways

21、and made change a positive good.”7Alea Iacta EstAlios Ego Vidi VentosScio Me Nihil ScireChanges in TechnologyThe Cotton Industry Long the home of an important wool trade, Britain in theeighteenth century jumped ahead in the production of cotton, the industry that first showed the possibility of unpr

22、ecedented growth rates. British cotton production expanded ten-fold between 1760 and 1785, and another ten-fold between 1785 and 1825. A series of inventions revolutionized the industry and drastically altered the social conditions of the work.In 1733, long before the expansion started, a simple inv

23、entionJohn Kays flyingshuttlemade it possible for weavers to double their output. The flying shuttle enabled weavers to produce faster than spinners could spinuntil James Hargreavess spinning jenny, perfected by 1768, allowed an operator to work several spindles at once, powered only by human energy

24、. Within five years, Richard Arkwrights water frame spinning machine could be powered by water or animals, and Samuel Cromptons spinning mule (1779) powered many spindles, first by human and later by animal and water energy. These changes improved spinning productivity so much that it caused bottlen

25、ecks in weaving until Edmund Cartwright developed a power loom in 1785. To the end of the century, there was a race to speed up the spinning part of the process and then the weaving part by applying water power to looms or new, larger devices to the spinning jenny.Arkwrights water frame made it more

26、 efficient to bring many workers together, ratherthan sending work out to individuals in their own homes. This development was the beginning of the factory system, which within a generation would revolutionize the conditions of labor. Because water power drove these early machines, mills were locate

27、d near rivers and streams. Towns thus grew up where machinery could be powered by water; the factory system concentrated laborers and their families near the factories.The Steam Engine James Watt, a Scottish engineer, developed the steam engine in the1760s. Because steam engines ran on coal or wood,

28、 not water power, they allowed greater flexibility in locating textile mills. Factories were no longer restricted to the power supplied by a river or a stream or to the space available beside flowing water; they could be built anywhere. With steam, the whole pattern of work changed because weaker, y

29、ounger, and less skilled workers could be taught the few simple tasks necessary to tend the machine. The shift from male to female and child labor was a major social change.The Iron Industry Although steam power allowed employers to hire weaker people tooperate machinery, it required machines made o

30、f stronger metal to withstand the forces generated by the stronger power source. By the 1780s, trial and error had8Sapere AudeLR PortaVelle Est Posseperfected the production of wrought iron, which became the most widely used metaluntil steel began to be cheaply produced in the 1860s.The iron industr

31、y made great demands on the coal mines to fuel its furnaces. Becausesteam engines enabled miners to pump water from the mines more efficiently and at a much deeper level, rich veins in existing mines became accessible for the first time. The greater productivity in coal allowed the continued improve

32、ment of iron smelting. Then, in 1856, Henry Bessemer developed a process for converting pig iron into steel by speedily removing the impurities in the iron. In the 1860s, William Siemens and the brothers Pierre and mile Martin developed the open-hearth process, which could handle much greater amount

33、s of metal than Bessemers converter. Steel became so cheap to produce that it quickly replaced iron in industry because of its greater tensile strength and durability.Transportation The steam engine and iron and steel brought a new era in transport.As machines speeded up factory production, methods

34、of transportation also improved. In 1830, the first railway line was built in England, connecting Manchester and Liverpool; this sparked an age of railway building throughout much of the world. Shipping changed radically with the use of vessels without sails, which had greater tonnage capacity.9Alea

35、 Iacta EstAlios Ego Vidi VentosScio Me Nihil ScireII. Society TransformedThe innovations in agricultural production, business organization, and technologyhad revolutionary consequences for society, economics, and politics. People were drawn from the countryside into cities, and traditional ways of l

36、ife changed. Much of the old life persisted, however, particularly during the first half of the nineteenth century. Landed property was still the principal form of wealth, and large landowners continued to exercise political power. From England to Russia, families of landed wealth (often the old nob

37、le families) still constituted the social elite. European society remained overwhelmingly rural; as late as the midcentury, only England was half urban. Nevertheless, contemporaries were so overwhelmed by industrialization that they saw it as a sudden and complete break with the past: the shattering

38、 of traditional moral and social patterns.Cities grew in number, size, and population as a result of industrialization. Forexample, between 1801 and 1851, the population of Birmingham rose from 73,000 to 250,000 and that of Liverpool from 77,000 to 400,000. Industrial cities expanded rapidly, withou

39、t planning or much regulation by local or national government. So much growth with so little planning or control led to cities with little sanitation, no lighting, wretched housing, poor transportation, and little security.Rich and poor alike suffered in this environment of disease, crime, and uglin

40、ess,although the poor obviously bore the brunt of these evils. They lived in houses located as close to the factories as possible. The houses were several stories high and built in rows close to each other. Sometimes a whole family huddled together in one room or even shared a room with another fami

41、ly. Open sewers, polluted rivers, factory smoke, and filthy streets allowed disease to spread. In Britain, about twenty-six out of every one hundred children died before the age of five. Almost universally, those who wrote about industrial citiesEnglands Manchester, Leeds, and Liverpool and Frances

42、Lyonsdescribed the stench, the filth, the inhumane crowding, the poverty, and the immorality.Changes in Social StructureThe Industrial Revolution destroyed forever the old division of society into clergy,nobility, and commoners. The development of industry and commerce caused a corresponding develop

43、ment of a bourgeoisie: a middle class, comprising people of common birth who engaged in trade and other capitalist ventures. The wealthiest bourgeois were bankers, factory and mine owners, and merchants, but the middle class10Sapere AudeLR PortaVelle Est Possealso included shopkeepers, managers, law

44、yers, and doctors. The virtues of work,thrift, ambition, and prudence characterized the middle class as a whole, as did the perversion of these virtues into materialism, selfishness, callousness, and smugness.From the eighteenth century on, as industry and commerce developed, the middleclass grew in

45、 size, first in England and then throughout western Europe. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the middle class struggled against the entrenched aristocracy to end political, economic, and social discrimination. By the end of the nineteenth century, bourgeois politicians held the highes

46、t offices in much of western Europe and shared authority with aristocrats, whose birth no longer guaranteed them the only political and social power in the nation. As industrial wealth grew more important, the middle class became more influential. Its wealthy members also tended to imitate the arist

47、ocracy: it was common throughout Europe for rich bourgeois to spend fortunes buying great estates and emulating aristocratic manners and pleasures.Industrialization may have reduced some barriers between the landed elites and themiddle class, but it sharpened the distinctions between the middle clas

48、s and the laboring class. Like the middle class, the proletariat encompassed different economic levels: rural laborers, miners, and city workers. Many gradations existed among city workers, from artisans to factory workers and servants. Factory workers were the newest and most rapidly growing social

49、 group; at midcentury, however, they did not constitute most of the laboring people in any major city. For example, as late as 1890, they made up only one-sixth of Londons population.The artisans were the largest group of workers in the cities for the first half of thenineteenth century, and in some

50、 places for much longer than that. They worked in construction, printing, small tailoring or dressmaking establishments, food preparation and processing, and crafts producing such luxury items as furniture, jewelry, lace, and velvet. Artisans were distinct from factory workers; their technical skill

51、s were difficult to learn, and traditionally their crafts were acquired in guilds, which still functioned as both social and economic organizations. Artisans were usually educated (they could read and write), lived in one city or village for generations, and maintained stable families, often securin

52、g places for their children in their craft. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, however, they found it hard to compete with cheap, factory-produced goods, and their livelihoods were threatened.Servants were especially numerous in capital cities. In the first half of the nineteenthcentury, in ci

53、ties like Paris and London, where the number of factories was not great, there were more servants than factory workers. Servants usually had some education. If they married and had a family, they taught their children to read and write and sometimes to observe the manners and values of the household

54、 in which the parent had worked. Many historians believe that these servants passed on to their children11Alea Iacta EstAlios Ego Vidi VentosScio Me Nihil Sciretheir own deference to authority and their aspirations to bourgeois status, which mayhave limited social discontent and radical political ac

55、tivity.Working-Class LifeLife was not easy for those whose labor contributed to the industrializing process.Usually, factory workers were recent arrivals from agricultural areas, where they had been driven off the land. They frequently moved to the city without their families, leaving them behind un

56、til they could afford to support them in town. These people entered rapidly growing industries, where long hourssometimes fifteen a day were not unusual. Farming had meant long hours, too, as had the various forms of labor for piecework rates in the home, but the pace of the machine, the dull routin

57、e, and dangerous conditions in factories and mines made work even more oppressive. Miners, for example, labored under the hazards of caveins, explosions, and deadly gas fumes. Deep beneath the earths surface, life was dark, cold, wet, and tenuous. Their bodies stunted and twisted, their lungs wrecke

58、d, miners toiled their lives away in “the pits.”Sometimes, compared with their lives in the country, the workers standard of livingrose, particularly if the whole family found work; the pay for a family might be better than they could have earned for agricultural labor. But working conditions were terrible, as were living conditions. The factories were dirty, hot, unventil