教育经济学课程大纲.docx

731234092015年春季学期刘子瑜 讲师中国农业大学人文与发展学院刘子瑜 讲师办公室：中国农业大学西校区主楼622室联系电话子信箱：助教：无教育经济学 课程大纲课程号：73123409上课时间：周一5-6节，14:00-15:50上课地点：西校区，新教2115课程简介：教育经济学是教育经济与管理专业硕士研究生的必修课程。主要探讨与教育相关的经济问题，包括三大模块，教育成本与收益（含人力资本理论、教育筛选理论、教育的社会与其他功能、教育收益成本分析等内容）、教育财政与规划（含教育公平、择校与入学问题、）、学生学业成就及其影响因素等内容，学校财政及拨款制度，教育问责，教育均等与教育公平，教师劳动力市场，人力资本投资，教育成本与收益，学费、学业贷款和奖助学金，教育与社会经济增长，发展中国家的教育投资等问题。本课程开设目的有三：第一，了解和学习使用相关理论（教育学、公共经济学、劳动经济学、宏观经济学、组织理论等）来探索教育问题的方法；第二，熟悉实证研究的范式和一般特征；第三，引导学生理解并开展原创性研究。先修要求：为更好地理解本课程内容，学生应对微观经济学（Microeconomics）、线性回归（Univariate Regression）有所掌握，对多元回归（Multiple Regression）有所了解。课程涉及大量英文文献，学生应具备基本的阅读专业文献的能力。课程考核：本课程评成绩共计100分，60分及格，成绩由四部分构成：1. 出勤分，共16分。每次课程凡按时到课、不早退者可得1分。迟到、早退者得0.5分。缺勤者得0分。学生有两次请假机会，请假者计0.5分。其他情形可酌情与教师商定；2. 课堂表现，共24分。由教师对学生课堂讨论的表现进行打分，从优秀到较差分别为1.5分、1分、0.5分，未到课学生原则上不能获得该项分数；3. 文献综述，共10分。在本课中，学生应自行拟定一个学术问题，并开展独立研究。任何研究的起点，都应是对已有研究的回顾和评论。这是文献综述的意义和主要内容。教师会提供一篇范例文献综述。学生应在学期当中完成文献综述，并于5月3日提交给教师。文献综述按照全面、可信、有价值三项原则进行评价，即文献综述应当回顾全部（至少大部分）重要的相关文献，并如实地将已有研究的方法、数据、结论等要点呈现在行文中，最终给出有价值的评论和分析。4. 期末论文草稿，共10分。为保证学生能够顺利开展研究，其论文草稿应当在6月7日提交给任课教师。论文草稿应当格式规范、论证充分、有改进空间。5. 自主研究展示，共10分。学生在最后一次课程中进行自主研究展示，向其他同学呈现自己研究的研究问题、研究设计、数据与方法、主要结论、延伸讨论等部分内容。6. 期末论文定稿，共30分。学生应在6月30日提交自主研究论文的最终定稿。按照格式与引用、原创性、论证等原则进行评价。授课方式：研究生学习与本科学习相比，具有更多自主的、探究的、研讨的特征。本课程也会遵循这一原则，为学生提供足够的自主学习、探究学习、研讨学习的空间与时间。本课程共计16次课，每次2学时。其中，第七讲、第十三讲和第十六讲为讨论课，教师在课堂上不讲授内容，仅负责引导学生展开讨论、辩论或展示。另外十三次讲授课中，也会安排一定比重的时间供学生讲评文献或讨论课程内容。课程其他规定：病假与事假：原则上，学期中只允许学生有两次病假或事假，特殊情况可以酌情放宽，缺勤迟到与早退都会扣除分数；作业提交规定：原则上，所有作业（包括文献列表、期末论文草稿和期末论文定稿）都必须通过email在规定日期的17:00前提交。答疑时间：本课程不设规定的答疑时间，学生可通过电话或邮件联系教师，预约答疑。联系方式：最好通过电子邮件方式联系教师，教师会尽量快速回复。第一讲 教育经济学导论学习目标：了解教育经济学的学科发展历史，理解教育经济学的学科性质和研究对象，理解教育经济学的研究对象和研究方法，初步知晓教育经济学的研究成果，明确教育经济学的意义与作用。l 核心阅读n H. Levin. Mapping the Economics of Education. An Introductory Essay. Educational Researcher, 18(4):1373, 1989.l 扩展阅读n 张人杰. 国外教育社会学基本文选. 华东大学出版社. n 闵维方,丁小浩. 对我国高等教育经济学研究的回顾和展望J. 高等教育研究,1999,03:9-14. n 汪丁丁. 探索面向21世纪的教育哲学与教育经济学J. 高等教育研究,2001,01:35-40+48. n 王善迈. 关于教育经济学对象与方法的思考J. 北京师范大学学报(社会科学版),2006,01:28-32. n 宁本涛. 教育经济学研究方法的反思J. 教育与经济,2006,01:42-45. n 曾满超,魏新. 西方教育经济学:过去、现在与未来J. 教育研究,1997,04:29-37+49.第二讲 人力资本理论与教育回报学习目标：了解人力资本的发展、基本概念、性质特点和主要内容，理解教育的人力资本价值。l 核心阅读n 亚当斯密. 国富论. 第十章第一节“论工资与利润随劳动与资本用途的不同而不同” n G. Becker. Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. The Journal of Political Economy, 70(5):949, 1962.l 扩展阅读n T.W. Schultz. 1975. “The Value of the Ability to Deal with Disequilibria,” Journal of Economic Literature, 827-846.n O. Malamud and A. Wozniak 2012. The Impact of College on Migration Evidence from the Vietnam Generation, Journal of Human Resources, 47.4, pp. 913-950.n S. Black, P. Devereux, K. Salvanes 2005. Why the Apple Doesnt Fall Far: Understanding Intergenerational Transmission of Human Capital, American Economic Review, 95.1, pp. 437-449.n O. Ashenfelter and A. Krueger 1994. “Estimates of the Economic Returns to Schooling from a New Sample of Twins,” American Economic Review. Vol. 84.5, pp. 1157-73.n 刘雯,唐绍欣. 西方人力资本理论的新发展述评J. 经济科学,1998,04:95-103. n 王开国,宗兆昌. 论人力资本性质与特征的理论渊源及其发展J. 中国社会科学,1999,06:33-46. n 胡锋. 国内人力资本理论研究综述J. 中国人力资源开发,2002,02:24-26. n 杨明洪. 论西方人力资本理论的研究主线与思路J. 经济评论,2001,01:90-92. n 谢奕,林玳玳. 人力资本理论的形成与发展J. 中国人力资源开发,2001,02:8-9+25. n 江涛. 舒尔茨人力资本理论的核心思想及其启示J. 扬州大学学报(人文社会科学版),2008,06:84-87.第三讲 人力资本理论的竞争者学习目标：了解20世纪70年代左右研究者对人力资本理论的批判，以及新理论的内涵与特质，了解相关理论在中国的验证。l 核心阅读n M. Spence. Job Market Signaling. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3):355374, 1973.n 郭丛斌. 二元制劳动力市场分割理论在中国的验证J. 清华大学教育研究,2004,04:43-49.l 扩展阅读n F. Martorell and D. Clark 2010. The Signalling Value of a High School Diploma, Rand Working Paper 780.n 赖德胜. 劳动力市场分割与大学毕业生失业J. 北京师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2001,04:69-76.n 郭丛斌,丁小浩. 职业代际效应的劳动力市场分割与教育的作用J. 经济科学,2004,03:74-82.n 葛苏勤. 劳动力市场分割理论的最新进展J. 经济学动态,2000,12:53-56.n 吴一丁,毛克贞. 筛选理论、教育成本与高等教育体制J. 经济体制改革,2006,02:174-177.n 余华义. 从筛选理论的观点看扩招对毕业生就业的影响J. 理论与改革,2006,03:88-91.n 刘泽云. 筛选理论的经验验证:方法与结论J. 比较教育研究,2009,01:27-32. n J. Betts 1998. “The Impact of Educational Standards on the Level and Distribution of Earnings,”American Economic Review, Vol. 88.1 (March), pp. 266-75.n J. Tyler, R. Murnane, and J. Willett. Estimating the Labor Market Signaling Value of the GED. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(2):431468, 2000.第四讲 教育与经济增长学习目标：理解教育与经济增长、教育与技术进步、教育与社会，以及与就业、资源利用、实际收入水平、收入分配结构等的关系。l 核心阅读n A. Krueger and M. Lindahl. Education for Growth: Why and For Whom? Journal of Economic Literature, 39(4):11011136, 2001.n 蔡增正. 教育对经济增长贡献的计量分析科教兴国战略的实证依据J. 经济研究,1999,02:41-50.l 扩展阅读n M. Kremer and E. Miguel. 2001. “Worms: Education and Health Externalities in Kenya,” NBER Working Paper No. 8481.n C. Hoxby. 2008. School Spending, Income, and Inequality: The Efficient Redistribution Hypothesis, Stanford University manuscript.n A. Banerjee, S. Cole, E. Duflo and L. Linden. 2003. “Improving the Quality of Education in India: Evidence from Three Randomized Experiments,” NBER mimeo.n L. Pritchett. Where Has All the Education Gone? The World Bank Economic Review, 15(3): 367391, 2001.n 杨俊,李雪松. 教育不平等、人力资本积累与经济增长:基于中国的实证研究J. 数量经济技术经济研究,2007,02:37-45.n 丁小浩,陈良焜. 高等教育扩大招生对经济增长和增加就业的影响分析J. 教育发展研究,2000,02:9-14.n 徐舒. 技术进步、教育收益与收入不平等J. 经济研究,2010,09:79-92+108.n 文东茅. 家庭背景对我国高等教育机会及毕业生就业的影响J. 北京大学教育评论,2005,03:58-63.n 曾满超,丁延庆. 中国义务教育资源利用及配置不均衡研究J. 教育与经济,2005,02:34-40.n 赖德胜. 教育、劳动力市场与收入分配J. 经济研究,1998,05:43-50.n 杨俊,黄潇,李晓羽. 教育不平等与收入分配差距:中国的实证分析J. 管理世界,2008,01:38-47+187.第五讲 教育收益成本分析（上）学习目标：理解教育收益、教育成本的构成，并能够简单计算。l 核心阅读n Psacharopoulos, George. Returns to investment in education: A global update.World development22.9 (1994): 1325-1343.n 卢晓东. 研究生生均教育成本分析J. 高等教育研究,2004,05:64-71.l 扩展阅读n Psacharopoulos, George. Returns to education: an updated international comparison.Comparative education17.3 (1981): 321-341.n Johnstone, D. Bruce. The economics and politics of cost sharing in higher education: comparative perspectives.Economics of education review23.4 (2004): 403-410. 杨世忠,许江波,张丹. 作业成本法在高校教育成本核算中的应用研究基于某高校成本核算的实例分析J. 会计研究,2012,04:14-19+94.n 陈国民. 高等学校教育成本分析J. 事业财会,2003,02:80-81.第六讲 教育收益成本分析（下）学习目标：理解教育收益率、内部收益率的概念，并能简单计算。l 核心阅读n Cohn, Elchanan, and Woodrow W. Huches. A benefit-cost analysis of investment in college education in the United States: 19691985.Economics of Education Review13.2 (1994): 109-123.n 周群英. 硕士研究生教育个人投资成本收益分析D.武汉大学,2004.l 扩展阅读n Villar, Anthony, and Michael Strong. Is mentoring worth the money? A benefit-cost analysis and five-year rate of return of a comprehensive mentoring program for beginning teachers.ERS Spectrum25.3 (2007): 1-17.n Psacharopoulos, George. Higher Education in Developing Countries: A Cost-Benefit Analysis. Staff Working Paper No. 440. (1980).n 李实,丁赛. 中国城镇教育收益率的长期变动趋势J. 中国社会科学,2003,06:58-72+206.n 陈晓宇,闵维方. 我国高等教育个人收益率研究J. 高等教育研究,1998,06:36-40.n 徐玮斌. 教育成本收益分析:实证方法探讨J. 教育与经济,1995,03:27-30.第七讲 讨论课：诸理论之比较学习目标：阅读相关文献，综合比较人力资本理论及其竞争理论。l 核心阅读n M. Blaug. Where Are We Now in the Economics of Education? . Economics of Education Review, 4(1):1728, 1985.n S. Bowles, H. Gintis, and M. Osborne. The determinants of earnings: A behavioral approach. Journal of Economic Literature, 39(4):11371176, 2001.n S. Bowles and H. Gintis. Schooling in Capitalist America Revisited. Sociology of Education, 75(1):118, 2002.l 扩展阅读n D. Cutler and A. Lleras-Muney. Education and Health: Evaluating Theories and Evidence. NBER Working Paper, 2006.n R. Haveman and B. Wolfe. Schooling and Economic Well-Being: The Role of Nonmarket Effects. The Journal of Human Resources, 19(3):377407, 1984.n E. Moretti. Estimating the social return to higher education: evidence from longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional data. Journal of Econometrics, 121(1-2):175212, 2004.n A. Weiss. Human Capital vs. Signalling Explanations of Wages. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(4):133154, 1995.n P. Arcidiacono, P. Bayer, A. Hizmo 2010. Beyond Signaling and Human Capital: Education and the Revelation of Ability American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2, pp. 76104.n J. McCrary and H. Royer 2006. The Effect of Female Education on Fertility and Infant Health: Evidence from School Entry Policies Using Exact Date of Birth NBER Working Paper 12329.n R. Murnane, J. Willett, and F. Levy. The Growing Importance of Cognitive Skills in Wage Determination. Review of Economics and Statistics, 77(2):25166, 1995.第八讲 教育公平学习目标：理解教育公平的内涵，并了解教育公平相关实证研究的具体做法。l 核心阅读n C. Jencks. Whom Must We Treat Equally for Educational Opportunity to be Equal? Ethics, 98(3):518533, 1988.n 石中英. 教育公平的主要内涵与社会意义J. 中国教育学刊,2008,03:1-6+27.l 扩展阅读n L. Thurow. Education and Economic Equality. Public Interest, 1972.n P. Todd and K. Wolpin. The Production of Cognitive Achievement in Children: Home, School and Racial Test Score Gaps. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania, PIER Working Paper, pages 04019, 2006.n 杨东平. 对我国教育公平问题的认识和思考J. 教育发展研究,2000,08:5-8.n 杨东平. 从权利平等到机会均等新中国教育公平的轨迹J. 北京大学教育评论,2006,02:2-11+189.n 张长征,郇志坚,李怀祖. 中国教育公平程度实证研究:1978-2004基于教育基尼系数的测算与分析J. 清华大学教育研究,2006,02:10-14+22.第九讲 入学与择校学习目标：了解入学与择校问题背后的经济动因，并了解中美两国在此问题上之异同。l 核心阅读n Brown, Phillip. The Third Wave: education and the ideology of parentocracy .British journal of sociology of education11.1 (1990): 65-86.n 文东茅. 我国城市义务教育阶段的择校及其对弱势群体的影响J. 北京大学教育评论,2006,02:12-23+189.l 扩展阅读n S. Black. Do Better Schools Matter? Parental Valuation of Elementary Education. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(2):577599, 1999.n J. Angrist, E. Bettinger, E. Bloom, E. King, and M. Kremer. 2001. “Vouchers for Private Schooling in Colombia: Evidence from a Randomized Natural Experiment,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 8343.n C. Hoxby. 2003. School Choice and School Competition: Evidence from the United States, Swedish Economic Policy Review, Vol 10, 9-65.n C. Hoxby and S. Murarka. 2007. The Effects of New York Citys Charter Schools on Student Achievement, New York City Charter Schools Evaluation Project.n C. Tiebout. A Pure Theory of Local Public Expenditures. Journal of Political Economy, 64(5): 41624, 1956.n D. Neal. How Vouchers Could Change the Market for Education. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16(4):2544, 2002.n H. Ladd. School Vouchers: A Critical View. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16(4):324, 2002.n C. Rouse. Schools and Student Achievement: More Evidence from the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program. Industrial Relations Section, Princeton University, 1998.n J. B. Cullen, B. A. Jacob, and S. D. Levitt. The effect of school choice on participants: Evidence from randomized lotteries. Econometrica, 74(5):1191230, 2006.n C. Hsieh and M. Urquiola. When Schools Compete, How Do They Compete? An Assessment of Chiles Nationwide School Voucher Program. NBER Working Paper, 2003.n D. Ballou. Pay for performance in public and private schools. Economics of Education Review, 20(1):5161, 2001.n M. Hoekstra. 2009. The Effect of Attending the Flagship State University on Earnings: A Discontinuity-Based Approach, Review of Economics and Statistics, 91 (4): 717-724.n Saavedra, Juan Estaban. 2009. The Learning and Early Labor Market Effects of College Quality: a Regression Discontinuity Analysis. Rand Corporation working paper. /saavedracollrd-pdf.n D. Hamermesh and S. Donald. 2004. The Effect of College Curriculum on Earnings. NBER Working Paper 10809 (published in Journal of Econometrics, 2008, 144: 479-491).n 曾晓洁. 美国的“择校制度”与基础教育改革J. 比较教育研究,1997,06:48-52.n 孟令熙. 对义务教育阶段择校现象合理性的思考J. 教育探索,2003,09:26-27.n 郑若玲. 考试公平与区域公平:高考录取中的两难选择J. 高等教育研究,2001,06:53-57.n 张淑锵,程宏宇. 就近入学与择校现象:教育机会均等问题浅析J. 教育理论与实践,2001,01:23-26.n 陈友华,方长春. 社会分层与教育分流一项对义务教育阶段“划区就近入学”等制度安排公平性的实证研究J. 江苏社会科学,2007,01:229-235.n 刘海峰. 高考改革的回顾与展望J. 教育研究,2007,11:19-24.n 刘晓瑜,潘东明. 高等教育机会均等与高考制度改革J. 教育研究,2002,02:26-30.n 刘海峰. 高考改革中的公平与效率问题J. 教育研究,2002,12:80-84.第十讲 高等教育中的择校与资助制度学习目标：联系此前关于教育收益成本分析内容，理解高等教育中择校和选专业的意义，并分析高等教育资助制度的相关特点。l 核心阅读n M. Hoekstra. 2009. The Effect of Attending the Flagship State University on Earnings: A Discontinuity-Based Approach, Review of Economics and Statistics, 91 (4): 717-724.n S. Dynarski. 2000. “Hope for Whom? Financial Aid for the Middle Class and Its Impact on College Attendance,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7756.l 扩展阅读n Saavedra, Juan Estaban. 2009. The Learning and Early Labor Market Effects of College Quality: a Regression Discontinuity Analysis. Rand Corporation working paper. /saavedracollrd-pdf.n D. Hamermesh and S. Donald. 2004. The Effect of College Curriculum on Earnings. NBER Working Paper 10809 (published in Journal of Econometrics, 2008, 144: 479-491).n M. Wiswall and B. Zafar. 2011. Determinants of College Major Choice: Identification Using an Information Experiment, Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Report 500.n I. McFarlin. 2006. Do Public Subsidies Promote College Access and Completion? Evidence from Community College Districts University of Michigan manuscript.n T. Kane. 2003. “A Quasi-experimental Estimate of the Impact of Financial Aid on College-going,” NBER Working Paper No. 9703.n C. Avery and C. Hoxby. 2003. “Do and Should Financial Aid Packages Affect Students College Choices? in College Choices, ed. C. Hoxby. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.n B. Long. 2003. “Does the Format of a Financial Aid Program Matter? The Effect of State In-Kind Tuition Subsidies” NBER Working Paper No. 9720.n S. Peltzman. 1973. “The Effect of Government Subsidies-in-Kind on Private Expenditures: The Case of Higher Education,” Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 81.1 (January/February), pp. 1-27.n J. Scott-Clayton. 2011. “On Money and Motivation: A Quasi-Experimental Analysis of Financial Incentives for College Achievement.” Journal of Human Resources, 46.3: 614-646.n 吴斌珍,钟笑寒. 高考志愿填报机制与大学招生质量:一个基于择校机制理论的经验研究J. 经济学(季刊),2012,02:765-804.n 肖洁,卜林. 高考考生择校意愿分析基于南京工业大学08级新生的调查J. 中国青年研究,2010,01:92-95.n 张建奇. 1983年以来我国大学生资助的演变J. 现代大学教育,2003,01:69-72.n 叶忠. 论当前我国大学生资助制度的功能J. 教育与经济,2000,01:34-36.n 杨克瑞. 大学生资助的贷款误区及政府责任的实现J. 清华大学教育研究,2005,04:87-91.第十一讲 高等教育拨款与学费学习目标：了解高等教育拨款的不同模式，并理解各国学费变动的原因。l 核心阅读n Hoxby, Caroline M. How the changing market structure of US higher education explains college tuition. No. w6323. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1997.n 刘彦伟,胡晓阳. 20世纪90年代中后期我国普通高等教育经费来源结构的变动J. 高等教育研究,2005,06:34-39.l 扩展阅读n Levidow, Les. Marketizing higher education: Neoliberal strategies and counter-strategies. (2002): 227-248.n Epple, Dennis, Richard Romano, and Holger Sieg. Admission, tuition, and financial aid policies in the market for higher education.Econometrica74.4 (2006): 885-928.n Altbach, Philip G., and Jane Knight. The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities.Journal of studies in international education11.3-4 (2007): 290-305.n Winston, Gordon C. Subsidies, hierarchy and peers: The awkward economics of higher education.The Journal of Economic Perspectives(1999): 13-36.n Berger, Mark C., and Thomas Kostal. Financial resources, regulation, and enrollment in US public higher education. Economics of Education Review 21.2 (2002): 101-110.n Slaughter, Sheila, and Gary Rhoades.Academic capitalism and the new economy: Markets, state, and higher education. JHU Press, 2004.n 刘向东,张伟,陈英霞. 欧美高等教育机构经费来源及其启示J. 高等教育研究,2005,05:97-102.n 官风华,魏新. 高等教育拨款模式研究J. 教育研究,1995,02:23-29.n 陈志勇. 英国高等教育财政拨款体制研究D.华中师范大学,2007.n 包海芹. 高等教育学费制度变迁研究J. 清华大学教育研究,2008,02:70-76.第十二讲 教师劳动力市场l 核心阅读n 阎凤桥. 学术劳动力市场的特性与研究型大学的教师聘用制度J. 北京大学教育评论,2005,03:64-69+88.n C. Hoxby and A. Leigh. 2004. Pulled Away or Pushed Out? Explaining the Decline of Teacher Aptitude in the United States, American Economic Review. Vol 94.2.l 扩展阅读n S. Corcoran, W. Evans, and R. Schwab. 2004. “Changing Labor Market Opportunities for Women and the Quality of Teachers 1957-1992,” American Economic Review. Vol 94.2.n J. Angrist and J. Guryan. 2004. “Teacher Testing, Teacher Education, and Teacher Characteristics, American Economic Review. Vol 94.2.n T. Kane, J. Rockoff, and D. Staiger. 2005. Teacher Quality and Alternative Teacher Certification, NBER Conference Paper.n B. Jacob. 2007. Do Principals Fire the Worse Teachers? An Examination of the Non-Renewal Policy in the Chicago Public Schools NBER Conference Paper.n D. Ballou and M. Podursky 1997. “What Went Wrong,” Chapter 4 in Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality. Kalamazoo MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, pp. 53-86.n C.M. Hoxby 1996. The Effects of Teachers Unions on Education Production Quarterly Journal of Economics.n D. Lakdawalla. 2001. “The Declining Quality of Teachers,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 8263.n T. Kane, D. Staiger, S. Cantrell, J. Fullerton 2007. National Board Certification and Teacher Effectiveness: Evidence from a Random Assignment Experiment NBER conference paper.n S. Loeb and M. Page. Examining the Link between Teacher Wages and Student Outcomes: The Importance of Alternative Labor Market Opportunities and Non-Pecuniary Variation. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 82(3):393408, 2000.n S. Corcoran, W. Evans, and R. Schwab. Changing Labor-Market Opportunities for Women and the Quality of Teachers, 1957-2000. The American Economic Review, 94(2):230235, 2004.n H. Lankford, S. Loeb, and J. Wyckoff. Teacher Sorting and the Plight of Urban Schools: A Descriptive Analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(1):37, 2002.n V. Lavy. Performance Pay and Teachers Effort, Productivity and Grading Ethics. NBER Working Paper, 2004.n D. Ballou. Pay for performance in pub