课件3._morphology.ppt

Word Structure: morphology,The Structure of Words: Morphology,Fundamental concepts in how words are composed out of smaller parts The nature of these parts The nature of the rules that combine these parts into larger units What it might mean to be a word,Basic Units,Remember that in phonology the basic distinctive units of sound are phonemes In morphology, the basic unit is the morpheme Basic definition: A morpheme is a minimal unit of sound and meaning The smallest unit of language that carries meaning (maybe a word or not a word) A sound-meaning unit A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function The level of language at which sound and meaning combine,Some Examples,Many words can be divided into smaller parts, where the parts also occur in other words: dogs walking blackens player-hater dog-s walk-ing black-en-s play-er hat-er Compare: cat-s; runn-ing; dark-en-s; eat-er (note: in some cases there are spelling changes when we add morphemes; ignore this),The smaller parts occur consistently with many words: -s: forms the plural consistently -ing: forms a noun from a verb -en: forms a verb meaning become ADJ from an adjective ADJ -er: forms an agentive nominal from a verb, a person or thing who does that activity,Connections between Sound and Meaning,Remember that a phoneme sometimes has more than one sound form, while being the same abstract unit: /p/ with p and ph. A related thing happens with morphemes as well. In order to see this, we have to look at slightly more complex cases.,Morphemes and Allomorphs,Sometimes it is said that a morpheme has more than one allomorph This happens when the same meaning unit like past for past tense or pl for plural has more than one sound form Past: one feature past kick / kick-ed leave / lef-t hit / hit- The last example shows a case in which the phonological form of the morpheme past is zero, i.e. it is not pronounced,In the case of phonology, we said that the different allophones of a phoneme are part of the same phoneme, but are found in particular contexts. The same is true of the different allomorphs of a morpheme. Which allomorph of a morpheme is found depends on its context; in this case, what it is attached to: Example: consider pl for English plural. It normally has the pronunciation s (i.e. /z/), but moose / moose- ox / ox-en,An Additional Point: Regular and Irregular,In the examples above, the different allomorphs have a distinct status. One of them is regular. This is the default form that appears in e.g. Wug-test environments. For other allomorphs, speakers simply have to memorize the fact that the allomorph is what it is. Example: It cannot be predicted from other facts that the plural of ox is ox-en. Demonstration: The regular plural is /z/; consider one box, two box-es. Or a Wug-test scenario. Default cases like the /z/ plural are called regular. Allomorphs that have to be memorized are called irregular.,Our working definition of morpheme was minimal unit of sound and meaning A further division among morphemes involves whether they can occur on their own or not: No: -s in dog-s; -ed in kick-ed; cran- in cran-berry. Yes: dog, kick, berry.,Some Definitions,Bound Morphemes: Those that cannot appear on their own. Free Morphemes: Those that can appear on their own. In a complex word: The root or stem is the basic or core morpheme. The things added to this are the affixes. Example: in dark-en the root or stem is dark, while the affix in this case a suffix is en.,Morphemes,lexical free (open classes) Morphemes functional (closed classes) bound derivational inflectional,Further points,In some cases, works will use root and stem in slightly different ways. Affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes depending on whether they occur before or after the thing they attach to. For the most part, prefixes and suffixes are always bound, except for isolated instances.,Stem (root, base): the morpheme to which other morphemes are added free (e.g. teacher, dresses, unkind) Stem bound (e.g. inept, unkempt, repeat),Root,A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “carefully”, “nation” in “internationalism”, “believe” in “unbeliev(e)able”,Stem,A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesiralbe” in undesirables,Base,A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.,Affix: Prefix e.g. unhappy Infix e.g. absogoddamlutely Suffix e.g. happiness,Content and Function Words,Content Morphemes: morphemes that have a referential function that is independent of grammatical structure; e.g. dog, kick, etc. Sometimes these are called open-class because speakers can add to this class at will Function morphemes: morphemes that are bits of syntactic structure e.g. prepositions, or morphemes that express grammatical notions like past for past tense. Sometimes called closed-class because speakers cannot add to this class,Free Morpheme,Definition: can occur by itself, not attached to other morphemes Examples: girl, teach, book, class, the, of, etc. Two kinds A. lexical morpheme (open class) 1. feature: has lexical meaning; new examples can be freely added 2. examples: N, Verb, Adj, Adv (content words) B. functional morpheme (closed class) 1. feature: new examples are rarely added (but not impossible to add) 2. examples: Pro, Prep, Conj, Art. (function words),Bound Morpheme,I. Definition: must be attached to another morpheme II. Derivational morpheme may change syntactic class to form new (different) words examples: -able, -ex, un-, re-, -ness, etc. III. Inflectional morpheme Different forms of the same word (no new word added) Not change syntactic class (nor adding lexical meaning) To indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word Only 8 kinds in English: -s, -s (plural nouns), -ing, -ed/-en, -est, -er, -s (S-V agreement),Whats the difference between the two morphemes “able” and “-able”? able (adj. in “Im able to do it”) -able (e.g., “enjoyable”) able lexical (free) morpheme -able derivational morpheme,Cross-Classification,The bound/free and content/function distinctions are not the same. Some examples: Content Function Bound cran- -ed Free dog the,Internal structure of words,Words have an internal structure that requires analysis into constituents (much like syntactic structure does) For example: Unusable contains three pieces: un-, use, -able Question: Is the order derive use-able, then add un-; or derive un-use, then add -able,Word Structure,Possibilities: Structure 1 Structure 2 un use able un use able,Consider: With able, we create adjectives meaning capable of being V-ed, from verbs V break/break-able; kick/kick-able There is no verb un-use This is an argument that Structure 1 is correct: un use able This analysis fits well with what the word means as well: not capable of being used. Structure 2 would mean something like capable of not being used,Another example,Consider another word: unlockable. Focus on un- Note that in addition to applying to adjectives (clear/unclear), un- applies to some verbs to give a kind of undoing or reversing meaning: do, undo zip, unzip tie, untie Note now that unlockable has two meanings,The Unlockable example,Two meanings: Not capable of being locked Capable of being unlocked These meanings correspond to distinct structures: 1) 2) un lock able un lock able,Structurally ambiguous words - unlockable,Af,unlockable,V,V,unlockable,The second structure is one in which able applies to the verb unlock This verb is itself created from un- and lock The meaning goes with this: capable of being unlocked In structure 1, there is no verb unlock So the meaning is not capable of being locked,Word formation,1. Derivation: (or Derivational affixation, Affixation) 2. Compounding: combine two or more morphemes to form new words 3. Reduplication: full or partial repetition of a morpheme 4. Blending: parts of the words that are combined are deleted 5. Clipping: part of a word has been clipped off 6. Acronyms: abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters 7. Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb) 8. Extension of word formation rules : Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though its not 9. Functional shift (Conversion): A change in the part of speech 10. Proper names Common words 11. Coining: Creating a completely new free morpheme 12. Onomatopoeia: words imitate sounds in nature 13. Borrowing: The taking over of words from other languages,1. Compounding,A compound is a complex word that is formed out of a combination of stems (as opposed to stem + affix) These function in a certain sense as one word, and have distinctive phonological patterns Examples: olive oil shop talk shoe polish truck driver,An interesting property of compounds is that although they are words, they form a productive system, without limits (as far as grammar is concerned, not memory). Note also that compounds have special accentual (stress) properties: judge trial judge murder trial judge murder trial judge reporter murder trial judge reporter killer murder trial judge reporter killer catcher murder trial judge reporter killer catcher biographer ,Some points about compounds,When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.,2.Reduplication,Reduplication: full or partial repetition of a free morpheme; sometimes with variation so-so 一點點 zigzag bye-bye 冷冰冰 dilly-dally（拖拖拉拉） 天天.人人 蹦蹦跳 hotchpotch 來來往往 hodgepodge (大杂烩） 點點滴滴 mishmash（混杂物 ） 卿卿我我,3. Blending,Blending (blends): similar to compounding, but some parts of the free morphemes involved are lost (usually keeping 1st part of 1st word + end of 2nd word) e.g. brunch breakfast+ lunch smog smoke+ fog motel motor+ hotel,newscast news + broadcast telex teleprinter + exchange bit binary + digit Reaganomics Reagan + economics fantabulous fantastic + fabulous,4. Clipping,Clipping (clipped forms): part of a free morpheme is cut off (i.e., shortening a polysyllabic word); often in casual speech e.g. prof. math gas phys-ed lab dorm ad bike flu poli-sci porn fax,5. Acronyms,Acronyms: abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters A. follow the pronunciation patterns of Eng. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) TOEFL (Test of Eng. as a Foreign Language) AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) NASA (National Aeronautics & Space Administration) UFO ( ? ),B. If unpronounceable each letter is sounded out separately ATM (automatic teller machine) I.Q. (intelligence quotient) MRT (Mass Rapid Transit)城市快速交通 MTV (music television) VCR (video cassette recorder) Acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) radar (radio detecting and ranging) zip (zone improvement plan),6. Back formation,e.g. editor edit donation donate burglar burgle zipper zip television televise babysitter baby sit Note: derivational affixation: teach teacher back formation: editor edit,7. Onomatopoeia,Onomatopoeia: words imitate sounds in nature (or in technology), but need to conform to phonological system of the language A dog: bow wow or woof-woof, 汪汪 A clock: tick-tock, 滴答 A rooster: cock-a-doodle-doo 咕咕咕 A camera: click, 喀擦 A duck: quack 嘎嘎 A cat: meow 喵喵 Ring of a bell: ding-dong, 叮咚 A cow: moo, 哞哞 A bee: buzz, 嗡嗡 A snake: hiss, 嘶嘶,8. Borrowing,Borrowing (Borrowed words or loan-words): the taking over of words from other languages A. Loan translation (or calque): direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language hot dog 熱狗 superman 超人 B. Transliteration cool 酷 DINK 頂客 YUPPIE 雅痞,9. Coining,Coining (Coinage): Creating a completely new free morpheme, which is unrelated to any existing morphemes; a rare thing e.g. googol, pooch杂种狗 ,Nylon Note 1: “Kleenex克里内克丝面巾纸 ,” “teflon铁氟龙 ” are not really coinages (according to Nashs definition) though Yule puts them under this category “Aspirin” (might have relation to chemical name) and “Xerox” (which might come from Greek) and “vaseline” are also questionable. Note 2: everyday usage of “coining” linguistic definition of “coining”,10. Extension of word formation rules,Extension of word formation rules: Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though its not burger (mar)athon a(lco)holic hamburger telethon workaholic cheese burger danceathon buffalo burger walkathon步行马拉松 fish burger vege burger蔬菜包 tofu burger,12. Functional shift (Conversion),Functional shift (or conversion, category change): A change in the part of speech V N a guess, a must, a spy, a printout, walk, run, laugh, touch N V position, process, contact, notice, party, fax, butter, bottle (computer-related terms) input, output, format V ADJ see-through, a stand-up comedian,13. Inflection,Inflection: Creates new forms of the same word in a way that introduces or expresses different grammatical properties, while retaining some core notions of meaning (and category) Example: Play and Played describe the same action, but situate it differently in time.,Inflectional morphology: adds grammatical functions (i.e., number, tense, aspect, gender, case), so related to syntax, but does not create new words (so not related to the lexicon). Eng.: inflections (8 kinds) are all suffixes Other languages (e.g.of prefixes & infixes): Quiche (spoken in Mexico): prefixes for tense,Inflectional categories,Languages differ with respect to which categories are expressed inflectionally on e.g. verbs. English, for instance, expresses Person (1st person, 2nd person, 3rd) in a limited way, as well as tense: Present Past 1s praise prais-ed 2s praise prais-ed 3s praise-s prais-ed 1p praise prais-ed 2p praise prais-ed 3p praise prais-ed (s = singular, p = plural),Comparison,The expression of such inflectional categories is limited in English. Compare Latin (lauda:re praise): Present Past (imperfect) 1s laud-o: lauda:-ba-m 2s lauda:-s lauda:-ba:-s 3s lauda-t lauda:-ba-t 1p lauda:-