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密 级分类号编 号成 绩本科生毕业设计 (论文) 外 文 翻 译原 文 标 题Basic knowledge of transducers译 文 标 题传感器的基础知识作者所在系别机械工程系作者所在专业测控技术与仪器作者所在班级B08122作 者 姓 名白志珍作 者 学 号20084012203指导教师姓名刘健指导教师职称讲师完 成 时 间2012年2月5日北华航天工业学院教务处制译文标题Basic knowledge of transducers原文标题传感器的基础知识作 者Marina Lambert,译 名马瑞兰伯特国 籍英国原文出处Heating and Ventilation Featured Articles. January 2006传感器的基础知识传感器是一种将能量转化为光的、机械的或者更为普遍的电信号，这种能量转换发生的过程称之为换能作用。按照能量转换的复杂程度和控制方式，传感器被分为不同的等级，用来测量位移的电阻式传感器被分类为电阻式位移传感器，其他的分类诸如压力波纹管、压力膜和压力阀等。 1、传感器元件大多数的传感器是由感应元件，转换元件、控制元件、当然也有例外，例如：震动膜、.波纹管、应力管和应力环、低音管和悬臂都是敏感元件。对物理量作出反应，将物理的压力和力转换为位移，这些转换量可以被用作电参数，如电压、电阻、电容或者感应系数。机械式和电子式元件合并形成机电式传感设备或传感器。相似量的结合可以作为能量输入例如：热的、光的、磁的、化学的相互结合产生的热电式、光电式、电磁式和电化学式传感器。 2、传感器灵敏度通过校正测量系统获得的被测物理量和传感器输出信号的关系叫做传感器灵敏度K1=输出信号增量被测量的增量，实际上，传感器的灵敏度是已知的通过测量输出信号，输入量由下式决定，输入量=输出信号的增量k1。 3、理想传感器的性能特点：a)高保真性：传感器的输出波形式对被测量的真实展现，并且失真很小。 b)被测量干扰最小，任何情况下传感器的精度不能改变。c)尺寸：必须将传感器正确的放在所需要的场所。d)被测量和传感器信号之间要有线性关系。e)传感器对外部变换由很小的灵敏度,例如：压力传感器常常受到外部震动和环境温度的影响f)传感器的固有频率应能够避开被测量的频率和谐波。 4、电传感器 电传感器由很多理想特性，它们不仅实现远程测量和显示，还能提供高灵敏度。电传感器可分为如下两大类。这些传感器依靠外界电压刺激来工作。 A、变参数型包括：）电阻式）电容式）感应式）自感应式）互感应式 B、自激型包括:)电磁式；）热电式）光栅式； ）压电式。 这些传感器都是自己产生输出电压来反映被测量的输入并且这些过程是可逆的;例如，一般的电子传感器通常能产生出输出电压来反映晶体材料的性能，.然而，如果在材料上加一个自变电压，传感器可以通过变形或与变电压同频率的振动来体现可逆效应。 5、电阻式传感器分类：）那些表现为大电阻变化的物理量可通过分压方式进行测量，电位器就属于此类。）那些表现为小电阻变化的物理量可以通过电桥电路的方式来测量， 这一类包括应变仪和电阻温度计。 5.1、电位器 绕线式电位器由许多绕在非导体骨架的电阻丝以及滑行在线圈上的触头组成。结构原理如图，触头能够转动、直线式运动或者两运动合成的螺旋式运动。 如果测量设备的电阻比电位器的电阻大，那么电压既可以是交流也可以是直流，且输出电压与输入运动成正比。这种电位器受到分辨率和电噪声的影响，电噪声被定义为能检测到的输入量的最小的变化，电噪声分辨率大小取决于线圈与滑动触头围成的面积因此，输出电压为触头从一端移到另一端时一系列阶跃。 电子噪声可以通过接触电阻的振动、触头摩擦形成的机械磨损以及从敏感元件传出的触头振动产生。另外，测得的运动量可以通过惯性和电位器中移动元件的摩擦获得较大的机械载荷。触头表面的磨损将电位器的寿命限制为多少转。通常指的是生产商在说明书中提及的“寿命转数”，一个典型值为20*1000000转,空载电位器电路的输出电压V0由下式决定：设电阻R1= xi/at *Rat，其中xi为输入位移，at为最大可能位移，Rat为电位器的电阻。那输入电压为V*R1/(R1+( Rt-R1)=V*R1/Rt=V*xi/at*Retort=V*xi/it 上式表明，对于空载电位器输出电压和输入位移呈直线关系,通过提高激励电压V可以获得高的灵敏度,但是，V的最大值由电位器线圈金属丝的功率损耗P决定，即V=(Part)1/2。 5.2、 电阻应变仪 电阻应变仪是由机械应变产生电阻变化的传感器。它们是耦合或者非耦合的。a）耦合应变仪运用黏合剂可将应变仪与被检测的结构或部件的表面粘合或粘牢。耦合应变仪分为：)粘合在绝缘纸背后的金属细丝仪）在环氧树脂上粘贴导电箔片的光栅）在环氧树脂上粘贴铜或镍的半导体丝 电阻应变仪可作为单个元件仅在一个方向测量应力，或者几个元件的组合体可在几个方向同时进行测量。b） 非耦合应变仪：典型应变仪表明细电阻丝在悬臂弹簧偏差作用下改变电阻丝张力进而改变电阻丝的阻值。商业上通常在力、负载、压力传感器上运用此方法。 5.3、电阻温度传感器分类：a)金属（如铂、铜、钨、镍）的阻值会随着温度的升高而增大，即有一个正温度电阻系数。b)半导体，如用锰、钴、铬或镍的氧化物制成的电热调节器，其阻值变化与温度变化存在一个非线性关系，即通常有一个负温度电阻系数。c)金属电阻温度传感,在窄温度变化范围内，此类传感器取决于以下关系：R1=R01+a(b1-b0)，式中，a阻抗系数，R0为b0=0时C的电阻。d)电热调节器（半导体）电阻温度传感器。 电热调节器为感温电阻器，其阻值变化与温度变化呈非线性关系。通常此类传感器有一负温度系数。对于小的温度增量，阻值的变化大体呈线性，但是如果存在大的温差，测量电路需运用特定线性化技术生成电阻随温度变化的线性关系。 电热调节器通常被制成附有玻璃质釉的半导体圆盘形状，由于电热调节器可以小到1mn，所以响应的时间非常快。 5.4、光敏元件 光敏元件采用光敏半导体材料做成。当照射在半导体上的光强度增大，金属电极间的阻抗就会降低。光敏元件常用的半导体材料有硫化镉、硫化铅和铜锗化合物。 频率的有效范围由所用材料决定。硫化镉主要适用于可见光，硫化铅在红外线区有峰值响应，所以最适合于光故障检测以及温度测量。 5.5、放射性光元件 当光照射到放射性光元件的阴极时，电子就会获取足够能量到达阴极。阴极就会吸收这些电子产生一个通过电阻R的电流，从而形成一输出电压V。产生的光电压V=I.R式中，I为光发射电流，I=K.B且为灵敏度，B输入照度（lm），尽管输出电压能够表示照明的强度，这类元件却更多的应用于计算或调节，这里照射到阴极的光可被中断。 6、电容式传感器电容量随着相对介电常数、截面面积、或者极板间的距离的变化而变化。电容的特征曲线表明，在空间的一段范围内，截面面积和相对介电常数的变化与电容量变化成线性关系。不象电位器，变极距型电容传感器有无限的分辨率，这最适合测量微小的位移增量的位移。 7、电感式传感器 电感可以通过改变电感电路的阻抗来调节,电容式和电感式传感器的测量技术：a）用差分式电容或电感作为交流电桥。b）用交流电位计电路做动态测量。c）用直流电路为电容器提供正比于容值变化的电压。d）采用调频法，C或者L随着振荡电路频率的变化而改变电容式和电感式传感器的一些重要特性如下：)分辨率无限）精确到满量程的+-0.1%）位移范围从25*10-6m到10-3m）上升时间小于50us典型的被测量是位移、压力、振动量、声音和液位。 8、线性调压器 9、压电式传感器 10、电磁式传感器 11、热电式传感器 12、光电管 13、机械式传感器及敏感元件 Basic knowledge of transducers A transducer is a device which converts the quantity being measured into an optical, mechanical, or-more commonly-electrical signal.The energy-conversion process that takes place is referred to as transduction. Transducers are classified according to the transduction principle involved and the form of the measured. Thus a resistance transducer for measuring displacement is classified as a resistance displacement transducer. Other classification examples are pressure bellows, force diaphragm, pressure flapper-nozzle, and so on. 1、Transducer Elements Although there are exception ,most transducers consist of a sensing element and a conversion or control element. For example, diaphragms bellows strain tubes and rings, bourdon tubes, and cantilevers are sensing elements which respond to changes in pressure or force and convert these physical quantities into a displacement. This displacement may then be used to change an electrical parameter such as voltage, resistance, capacitance, or inductance. Such as combination of mechanical and electrical elements form electromechanical transduction devices or transducers. Similar combination can be made for other energy input such as thermal. Photo, magnetic and chemical giving thermoelectric, photoelectric electromagnetic and electrochemical transducers respectively. 2、Transducer Sensitivity The relationship between the measured and the transducer output signal is usually obtained by calibration tests and is referred to as the transducer sensitivity K1= output-signal increment / measured increment . In practice, the transducer sensitivity is usually known, and, by measuring the output signal, the input quantity is determined from input= output-signal increment / K1. 3、Characteristics of an Ideal Transducer The high transducer should exhibit the following characteristicsa) high fidelity-the transducer output waveform shape be a faithful reproduction of the measured; there should be minimum distortion.b) There should be minimum interference with the quantity being measured; the presence of the transducer should not alter the measured in any way.c) Size. The transducer must be capable of being placed exactly where it is needed.d)There should be a linear relationship between the measured and the transducer signal.e)The transducer should have minimum sensitivity to external effects, pressure transducers for example are often subjected to external effects such vibration and temperature.f) The natural frequency of the transducer should be well separated from the frequency and harmonics of the measured. 4、Electrical Transducers Electrical transducers exhibit many of the ideal characteristics. In addition they offer high sensitivity as well as promoting the possible of remote indication or measurements.Electrical transducers can be divided into two distinct groups:a)variable-control-parameter types, which include:I)resistanceii)capacitanceiii)inductanceiv)mutual-inductance typesThese transducers all rely on external excitation voltage for their operation.b)self-generating types, which includeI) electromagneticii) thermoelectriciii) photo emissiveIV)piano-electric types these all themselves produce an output voltage in response to the measured input and their effects are reversible. For example, a piano-electric transducer normally produces an output voltage in response to the deformation of a crystalline material; however, if an alternating voltage is applied across the material, the transducer exhibits the reversible effect by deforming or vibrating at the frequency of the alternating voltage. 5、Resistance Transducers Resistance transducers may be divided into two groups, as follows:I)Those which experience a large resistance change, measured by using potential-divider methods. Potentiometers are in this group.ii) Those which experience a small resistance change, measured by bridge-circuit methods. Examples of this group include strain gauges and resistance thermometers. 5.1 Potentiometers a linear wire-wound potentiometer consists of a number of turns resistance wire wound around a non-conducting former, together with a wiping contact which travels over the barbwires. The construction principles are shown in figure which indicate that the wiper displacement can be rotary, translational or a combination of both to give a helical-type motion. The excitation voltage may be either act. Ordeco. And the output voltage is proportional to the input motion, provided the measuring device has a resistance which is much greater than the potentiometer resistance.Such potentiometers suffer from the linked problem of resolution and electrical noise. Resolution is defined as the smallest detectable change in input and is dependent on the cross-sectional area of the windings and the area of the sliding contact. The output voltage is thus a serial of steps as the contact moves from one wire to next. Electrical noise may be generated by variation in contact resistance, by mechanical wear due to contact friction, and by contact vibration transmitted from the sensing element. In addition, the motion being measured may experience significant mechanical loading by the inertia and friction of the moving parts of the potentiometer. The wear on the contacting surface limits the life of a potentiometer to a finite number of full strokes or rotations usually referred to in the manufactures specification as the number of cycles of life expectancy, a typical value being 20*1000000 cycles.The output voltage V0 of the unload potentiometer circuit is determined as follows. Let resistance R1= xi/ox *Rat where xi = input displacement, at= maximum possible displacement, Rat total resistance of the potentiometer. Then output voltage V0= V* R1/ (R1+ (Rt-R1) =V*R1/Rt=V*xi/at*Retort=V*xi/it. This shows that there is a straight-line relationship between output voltage and input displacement for the unloaded potentiometer.It would seen that high sensitivity could be achieved simply by increasing the excitation voltage V. however, the maximum value of V is determined by the maximum power dissipation P of the fine wires of the potentiometer winding and is given by V=(Part)1/2 . 5.2 Resistance Strain Gauges Resistance strain gauges are transducers which exhibit a change in electrical resistance in response to mechanical strain. They may be of the bonded or unbounded variety.a) Bonded strain gauges using an adhesive, these gauges are bonded, or cemented, directly on to the surface of the body or structure which is being examined. Examples of bonded gauges areI) fine wire gauges cemented to paper backingii) photo-etched grids of conducting foil on an epoxy-resin backingiii) a single semiconductor filament mounted on an epoxy-resin backing with copper or nickel leads. Resistance gauges can be made up as single elements to measuring strain in one direction only, or a combination of elements such as rosettes will permit simultaneous measurements in more than one direction.b) Unbounded strain gauges a typical unbounded-strain-gauge arrangement shows fine resistance wires stretched around supports in such a way that the deflection of the cantilever spring system changes the tension in the wires and thus alters the resistance of wire. Such an arrangement may be found in commercially available force, load, or pressure transducers. 5.3 Resistance Temperature Transducers The materials for these can be divided into two main groups:a) metals such as platinum, copper, tungsten, and nickel which exhibit and increase in resistance as the temperature rises; they have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance.b) Semiconductors, such as thermostats which use oxides of manganese, cobalt, chromium, or nickel. These exhibit large non-linear resistance changes with temperature variation and normally have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.a) Metal resistance temperature transducers these depend, for many practical purpose and within a narrow temperature range, upon the relationship R1=R0*1+a*(b1-b2) where a coefficient of resistance in -1, and R0 resistance in ohms at the reference temperature b0=0 at the reference temperature range .The international practical temperature scale is based on the platinum resistance thermometer, which covers the temperature range -259.35 to 630.5.b) Thermostat resistance temperature transducersThermostats are temperature-sensitive resistors which exhibit large non-liner resistance changes with temperature variation. In general, they have a negative temperature coefficient.For small temperature increments the variation in resistance is reasonably linear; but, if large temperature changes are experienced, special linear zing techniques is used in the measuring circuits to produce a linear relationship of resistanceagainst temperature.Thermostats are normally made in the form of semiconductor discs enclosed in glass vitreous enamel. Since they can be made as small as 1mm, quite rapid response times are possible. 5.4 Photoconductive Cells The photoconductive cell, uses a light-sensitive semiconductor material. The resistance between the metal electrodes decreases as the intensity of the light striking the semiconductor increases. Common semiconductor materials used for photo-conductive cells are cadmium supplied, leadsupplied, and copper-doped germanium.The useful range of frequencies is determined by material used. Cadmium sapphire is mainly suitable for visible light, whereas lead supplied has its peak response in the infra-red region and is, therefore, most suitable for flame-failure detection and temperature measurement. 5.5 Photo emissive Cells When light strikes the cathode of the photo emissive cell are given sufficient energy to arrive the cathode. The positive anode attracts these electrons, producing a current which flows through resistor R and resulting in an output voltage V.Photo electrically generated voltage V=PurlWhere Imp=photoelectric current(A),and photoelectric current Imp=KatsWhere Kt=sensitivity (A/imp),and B=illumination input (lumen)Although the output voltage does give a good indication of the magnitude of illumination, the cells are more often used for counting or control purpose, where the light striking the cathode can be interrupted. 6、Capacitive Transducers The capacitance can thus made to vary by changing either the relative permittivity, the effective area, or the distance separating the plates. The characteristic curves indicate that variations of area and relative per