英语原文-基层社会治理中“拆违”的瓶颈与对策研究

33TOWARDCOMMUNITYENGAGEMENTINCITYGOVERNANCEEVALUATINGNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILREFORMINLOSANGELESJULIETMUSSO,CHRISTOPHERWEARE,MARKELLIOT,ALICIAKITSUSE,ELLENSHIAUCIVICENGAGEMENTPUBLICPOLICYBRIEFING2007USCCIVICENGAGEMENTINITIATIVETHESELFORGANIZATIONOFCOUNCILSMUSTBEATTRIBUTEDTOTHEDEDICATEDEFFORTSOFCOMMUNITYVOLUNTEERS,GOODNEWSFORACITYTHATISFREQUENTLYMALIGNEDASDEVOIDOFCIVICIDENTITYNOWEIGHTYEARSINTOTHEREFORM,WESEEVARIABLERESULTSREGARDINGTHELEGITIMACY,CAPACITY,ANDINFLUENCEOFNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSTHEMOSTOBVIOUSANDREGRETTABLESHORTCOMINGISTHATNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSDONOTADEQUATELYINCORPORATETHECULTURALDIVERSITYOFLOSANGELESHOMEOWNERSWITHLONGTENUREINTHECOMMUNITYAREMOSTHEAVILYREPRESENTED,WHICHISNOTSURPRISINGCONSIDERINGTHATTHECOUNCILSAREGEOGRAPHICALLYDEFINEDADVISORYBOARDSTHERAMIFICATIONOFTHISSTAKEHOLDERORIENTATIONISTHATLATINOSAREUNDERREPRESENTED,ANDBOARDSAREDISPROPORTIONATELYWEALTHY,WHITE,ANDHIGHLYEDUCATEDTHESEREPRESENTATIVEBIASESENDANGERTHEPOLITICALLEGITIMACYOFTHECOUNCILS,ANDRAISEQUESTIONSREGARDINGTHEIRABILITYTOSPEAKANDACTONBEHALFOFDIVERSECONSTITUENCIESWEALSOIDENTIFYCRITICALSHORTCOMINGSINTHECITYSDEVELOPMENTOFPOLITICALREFORMS“EMPOWERMENTINNOVATIONS”THATWOULDSUPPORTCONSTRUCTIVEENGAGEMENTOFNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSINGOVERNANCETHECHARTERCONTAINSFIVEPROVISIONSINTENDEDTOCREATEFORUMSFORINTERACTIONTOCONNECTNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSINADVISINGPOLICYFORMULATIONANDSERVICEDELIVERYTHESEPROVISIONSRECEIVEDSCANTATTENTIONDURINGTHECITYSPLANNINGOFNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSTHEPLANFOCUSEDPRIMARILYONDONERESPONSIBILITIESANDCERTIFICATIONPROCEDURES,ANDINSTITUTIONALSUPPORTFORCOUNCILINVOLVEMENTWITHTHECITYSUBSEQUENTLYHASEVOLVEDINANADHOCANDHALTINGMANNERTHEREISNOTADEQUATESUPPORTFORCOUNCILENGAGEMENTWITHTHECITYWEADVOCATETHATCITYOFFICIALSBROADENTHEIRMENTALMAPPINGOFTHENEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSYSTEMTOCONTAINNOTONLYTHE86COUNCILS,BUTALSOSTRUCTUREDARENASFORTHEIRINTERACTIONWITHTHECITYCOUNCIL,THEMAYORSOFFICE,BOARDSANDCOMMISSIONS,ANDCITYDEPARTMENTSFOURCONDITIONSFORSUCCESSAREIDENTIFIEDINBERRY,PORTNEY,ANDTHOMSONS1994RENOWNEDSTUDYOFNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSACITYWIDESYSTEM,ADEQUATERESOURCESUPPORT,POLITICALSUPPORT,ANDEMPOWERMENTINNOVATIONSTOSUPPORTPARTICIPATIONINCITYGOVERNANCEWHILETHECITYWIDESYSTEMISINPLACE,POLITICALSUPPORTANDINSTITUTIONALREFORMSHAVEBEENLACKINGMOREOVER,ITISNOTCLEARTHATNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSHAVETHELEADERSHIPRESOURCESREQUIREDTOOPERATEEFFECTIVELYCONSEQUENTLYNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILCAPACITYVARIESCONSIDERABLYACROSSTHECITYGIVENTHEEXIGENCIESOFSELFMAINTENANCE,ANDTHELIMITEDASSISTANCEPROVIDEDBYTHECITY,ITISNOTSURPRISINGTHATSOMENEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSSTRUGGLEWITHTHEOUTREACHREQUIREDTOSUSTAINLETALONETODIVERSIFYSTAKEHOLDERPARTICIPATIONWHILEGROUPCONFLICTANDELECTORALCONTROVERSIESGETPOLITICALATTENTION,MANYMORECOUNCILSSTRUGGLEQUIETLYTOGAINTRACTIONONCOMMUNITYISSUESTHENEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILAGENDAISDIVERSEWHILEINSTANCESOFLANDUSEOPPOSITIONGAINATTENTION,NIMBYISMCONSTITUTESARELATIVELYSMALLSPACEONTHEAGENDANEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSSHAPECOMMUNITYDESIGNGUIDELINES,ASSISTLOCALCOMMUNITYORGANIZATIONS,ORGANIZEFESTIVALSANDINVESTINCOMMUNITYBEAUTIFICATIONWHATISNOTWIDELYUNDERSTOODISTHATTHEYDEVOTEANEXTRAORDINARYSHAREOFEFFORTSTOSELFMAINTENANCEANDEXTERNALRELATIONSACTIVITIESTHESEOPERATIONALTASKSARENECESSARYTOSURVIVAL,ANDTHEYABSORBATREMENDOUSAMOUNTOFVOLUNTEERTIMENEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSANDDEPARTMENTOFNEIGHBORHOODEMPOWERMENTSTAFFAGREETHATOUTREACHISTHESINGLEMOSTDIFFICULTCHALLENGEFORNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSYSTEMSINOTHERCITIESHAVEBEENFOUNDTOIMPROVECIVICCULTUREBYDEEPENINGTHEQUALITYOFPARTICIPATIONANDFOSTERINGMOREPOSITIVEATTITUDESTOWARDCITYGOVERNMENTMANYOFTHESEEFFECTSAREATTRIBUTABLETOTHERELATIONSHIPSTHATDEVELOPAMONGNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILS,THEIRSTAKEHOLDERCONSTITUENTS,ANDCITYOFFICIALSCONNECTIONSTOCOMMUNITYSTAKEHOLDERSAREIMPORTANTTOINFORMCOUNCILMEMBERSOFLOCALNEEDSANDPREFERENCESANDENABLINGCOUNCILSTOLEVERAGERESOURCESFORCOMMUNITYACTIONRELATIONSHIPSWITHCITYOFFICIALSINTURNCONNECTCOUNCILSTOTHEAGENTSOFGOVERNMENT,PROMOTINGINFORMATIONEXCHANGEANDHELPINGTOFOSTERUNDERSTANDINGANDOPPORTUNITIESFORPARTNERSHIPWEDONOTSEETHECOUNCILSDEVELOPINGSTRONGRELATIONSHIPSWITHTHECOMMUNITYORWITHCITYOFFICIALS,PERHAPSNOTASURPRISINGFINDINGGIVENTHEINSTITUTIONALWEAKNESSESOFTHESYSTEMRATHER,THEREISGROWTHINPOLITICALRELATIONSHIPSBETWEENNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILS,THETYPESOFPOLITICALNETWORKSTHATCANSUPPORTMOREGENERALIZEDPOLITICALMOBILIZATIONINDEED,INSEVERALINSTANCESNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILSHAVEEXERCISEDTHEIRMUSCLESINRESPONSETOTHECITYBURGLARALARMANDDWPRATEINCREASEPROPOSALS,ANDMOSTRECENTLY,INOPPOSITIONTOCITYCOUNCILPLACEMENTONTHEBALLETOFPROPOSITIONRTOEXTENDTERMLIMITSWHATEMERGES,INSUM,ISASYSTEMTHATWHILEEFFICACIOUSINSOMECOMMUNITIES,NEEDSTOBEBROADENEDTOINCORPORATEAMOREDIVERSEGROUPOFSTAKEHOLDERPARTICIPANTSTHECITYNEEDSTOPROVIDEMUCHGREATERASSISTANCETOCOUNCILSWITHOUTREACHANDLEADERSHIPDEVELOPMENT,WHILEDEVELOPINGMORESTRUCTUREDARENASFORENGAGEMENTAROUNDPOLICYFORMULATIONANDSERVICEDELIVERYWERECOMMENDREFORMSINTHEFOLLOWINGAREASPARTICIPATORYREPRESENTATIONTOINCREASEDIVERSITYANDIMPROVECOMMUNITYLINKAGES,THECITYSHOULDASSUMERESPONSIBILITYFORELECTIONSANDGENERALIZEDOUTREACHITSHOULDSUPPORTCOUNCILSINPERFORMINGTARGETEDCOMMUNITYO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