【语言学习】二语习得(L3)正模版课件

LessonThree

Interlanguageandthe‘natural’routeofdevelopmentTasks:1writingapaperonthetopiconthe‘natural’routeofdevelopmentofL2

2

writingapaperonthetopicsuccessanalysisinsteadoferroranalysis3writingapaperonthetopicAnanalysisofEnglishfossilizationofstudentatsomelevelLessonThree

Interlanguagean11.WhatarementalistviewsofL1acquisition?2.Whataretheassumptionsunderlyinginterlanguagetheory?3.Whataretheprincipalprocessesoperatedininterlanguage?4.Whatisfossilization?Why?5.WhataretheessentialCharacteristicsofLanguage-learnerlanguage?6.WhatarethedifferencesbetweenErroranalysisandContrastiveAnalysis?7.WhatinformationaboutinterlanguagedoesErrorAnalysisprovide?8.Whataretheempiricalevidencesfortheinterlanguagehypothesis?9.Whataretheproblemswiththeempiricalresearches?1.Whatarementalistviewsof2IntroductionBackgroundtheoryandresearchinL1acquisition(afixedorderarebasedonatheoryoflearningthatstressesthelearner-internalfactors)Thenotionofinterlanguage(theoreticalconstructusedtoidentifythestagesofdevelopment)‘natural’routeofdevelopment(Theprincipalgoalofthischapter)DiscussionoftheL2=L1hypotesisCaveats(regardingthecentralityoflearner-internalprocessesinaccountsofSLA)Introduction3MentalistaccountsoffirstlanguageacquisitionChomskyLennebergMcNeillMentalistaccountsoffirstla4LanguageacquisitiondeviceChomskyassumesthatchildrenarebornwithalanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD).ThisLADismadeupofasetofgeneralprinciplescalleduniversalgrammar.Thesegeneralprinciplescanbeappliedtoallthelanguagesintheworld.LanguageacquisitiondeviceCho5Definitionofacquisition

AcquisitioncanbebroadlydefinedastheinternalizationofrulesandformulaswhicharethenusedtocommunicateintheL2.Inthissensetheterm‘acquisition’issynonymouswiththeterm‘learning’.However,Krashen(1981)usesthesetermswithdifferentmeaning.‘Acquisition’forKrashen,consistsofthespotaneousprocessofruleinternalizationthatresultsfromnaturallanguageuse,while‘learning’consistsofthedevelopmentofconsciousL2knowledgethroughformalstudy.Definitionofacquisition

Acqu6AcquisitiondeviceNativisttheoriesoflanguageacquistionemphasizetheimportanceoftheinnatecapacityofthelanguagelearnerattheexpenceofenvironmentalfactors.Eachlearneriscreditedwithan‘acquisitiondevice’whichdirectstheprocessofacquisition.Thisdevececontainsinformationaboutthepossibleformthatthegramarofanylanguagecantake.AcquisitiondeviceNativistthe7ChomskyChomsky’s(1959)stressedtheactivecontributionofthechildandminimizedtheimportanceofimitationandreinforcement.Chomskyclaimedthatthechild’sknowledgeofhismothertonguewasderivedfromaUniversalGrammarwhichspecifiedtheessentialformthatanynaturallanguagecouldtake.ChomskyChomsky’s(1959)stres8ThisviewofFLAwasrepresentedintheformofamodel(e.g.Chomsky1966):

primarylinguisticdataADGThisviewofFLAwasrepresent9Primarylinguisticdataservedonlyasatriggerforactivatingthedevice.Itdidnotshapetheprocessofacquisition,whichwassolelythetaskoftheAD.ADcontainedtheUGtoworkandrequiredthelearneraccesstoprimarylinguisticdata.ForChomskythetaskofthelinguist(orpsychologist)wastospecifythepropertiesoftheADthatwereresponsibleforthegrammar.【语言学习】二语习得(L3)正模版课件10DefinitionofUniversalgrammarCook(1985)summarizingtheChomskyanposition,defines‘universalgrammar’as‘thepropertiesinherentinthehumanmind’.Universalgrmmarconsistsofasetofgeneralpriciplesthatapplytoalllanguagesratherthanasetofparticularrules.DefinitionofUniversalgramma11UniversalGrammarexistedasasetofinnatelinguisticprincipleswhichcomprisedthe‘initialstate’andwhichcontrolledtheformwhichthesentencesofanygivenlanguagecouldtake.AlsopartoftheUniversalGrammarwasasetofdiscoveryproceduresforrelatingtheuniversalprinciplestothedataprovidedbyexposuretoanaturallanguage.UniversalGrammarexistedasa12普遍语法在母语与第二语言习得过程中所起的作用?普遍语法在母语与第二语言习得过程中所起的作用?13普遍语法的两大组成部分是普遍原则(principles)和参数(parameters),两者合称为核心语法(coregrammar)是语言中最本质的部分,是不用学的,天生的。要学的是具体的语法和词汇知识,这些知识因母语的不同而不同,它们的习得是通过参数值的设定。儿童由于具有这种习得机制,在广泛接触语言素材中,通过假说验证与先天的普遍语言相比较,认识到母语的语言规则,即取得了语言能力。普遍语法的两大组成部分是普遍原则(princip14第二语言习得就是在已有的语言参数的基础上习得另一种可能与现有语言参数相同或不同的语言。语言习得过程就是根据所接触的语言材料建立语言参数值的过程。例如,任何一种语言都具有核心词和修饰词(如形容词+名词),这是一个普遍规律.但是有的语言修饰词在核心词之前,有的则在核心词之后。比如,中文说“红色的书”,而法语则说:“Lelivrerouge”(书红色的)。在习得过程中,如果所接触的语言是修饰词在核心词之前,学习者对这一规律的参数值即定位修饰词+核心词;如果接触相反的语言材料,参数就定在相反值上。第二语言习得就是在已有的语言参数的基础上习得另15第二语言习得与第一语言习得二者的相同点:a.它们的发展模式相同;b.均受年龄因数的影响;c.语言输入与输出不对称;不同：第一语言和第二语言不一致的前提下,普遍语法通过第一语言做用在第二语言习得上。第二语言习得不同于第一语言习得。第一语言习得是在大脑的初始状态下进行的。所谓初始状态是指普遍语法还没有转化为具体语言的语法,因此第一语言的习得过成是参数值的确立过程;第二语言习得是在大脑的稳定状态下进行的,在这种状态下,普遍语法已经转换为具体语言的语法,因此第二语言的习得过程是参数值再确立(parameter-resetting)的过程。正因为有这种差别,第一语言习得是无意识的,而第二语言习得是有意识的。在结果上,第一语言习得是百分之百的成功、圆满,而第二语言习得很难达到圆满。第二语言习得与第一语言习得二者的相同点:a.它们的16普遍语法一定是处于初始状态的，被具体语法代替后自然消失。二语学习中，学员接触第二语言实例时会不由自主地将其与第一语言具体语法作比较，发现两者不一致时，修正参数，建立第二语言具体语法，储存大脑。大脑处于初始状态时参数是原则的限制范围，儿童通过假设验证过程确定某个具体语法后，参数与原则相对稳定结合。普遍语法一定是处于初始状态的，被具体语法代替后自17Lenneberg(1967)emphasizedthebiologicalprerequisitesoflanguage.Onlyhomosapienswascapableoflearninglanguage.Lennebergarguedthatthechild’sbrainwasspeciallyadaptedtotheprocessoflanguageacquisition,butthatthisinnatepropensitywaslostasmaturationtookplace.Hearguedthattherewasan‘ageofresonance’,duringwhichlanguageacquisitiontookplaceasageneticheritage.Lenneberg(1967)emphasizedthe18McNeillbelievesthatthechildbuiltuphisknowledgeofhismothertonguebymeansofhypothesistesting.McNeillbelievesthatthechil19WhatarementalistviewsofL1acquisition?MentalistviewsofL1acquisition:1Languageisahuman-specificfaculty.2Languageexistsasanindependentfacultyinthehumanmindi.e.althoughitispartofthelearner’stotalcognitiveapparatus,itisseparatefromthegeneralcognitivemechanismsresponsibleforintellectualdevelopment.3TheprimarydeterminantofL1acquisitionisthechild’s‘acquisitiondevice’.Whichisgeneticallyendowedandprovidesthechildwithasetofprinciplesaboutgrammar.4The‘acquisitiondevice’atrophieswithage.5theprocessofacquisitionconsistsofhypothesis–testing,bywhichmeansthegrammarofthelearner’smothertongueisrelatedtotheprinciplesofthe‘universalgrammar’.WhatarementalistviewsofL120TheprimarydeterminantofL1acquisitionisthechild’s‘acquisitiondevice’.Why?(P45)Thefirstisthatmanyofthechildren’searlyutteranceswereunique,inthesensethatnonative–speakingadultcouldhaveproducedthem.

Ifthechild’slinguisticoutputdoesnotmatchtheinputtheexplanationmustlieintheinternalprocessingthathastakenplace.Thesecondisthatdevelopmentwascontinuousandincremental,butcouldbecharacterizedasaseriesofstages.a)thelengthofchildren’sutterancesgraduallyincreases.b)knowledgeofthegrammaticalsystemisbuildupinsteps.(P46)TheprimarydeterminantofL121AccordingtomentalistaccountsofFLA,languageacquisitionisauniversalprocess.Thetermprocessisusedwithtworelatedmeanings.1.referstothestagesofdevelopmentthatcharacterizetheroutethechildfollows;itisadescriptiveterm.2.concernshowthechildconstructsinternalrulesandhowheadjuststhemfromstagetostage;itisanexplanatoryterm.Accordingtomentalistaccount22WhatisInterlanguage?InterlanguageisthetermcoinedbySelinker(1972)torefertothesystematicknowledgeofasecondlanguagewhichisindependentofboththelearner’firstlanguageandthetargetlanguage.Thetermhascometobeusedwithdifferentbutrelatedmeanings:1)torefertothesystemthatisobservedatsinglestageofdevelopment(i.e.aninterlanguage).2)torefertotheseriesofinterlockingsystemswhichcharacterizeacquisition,(i.e.theinterlanguagecontinuum)3)torefertoparticularmothertongue/targetlanguagecombinations(e.g.Frenchmothertongue/EnglishtargetlanguevsGermanmothertongue/Englishtargetlanguage)Nemser–approximativesystemsCorderidiosyncraticdialects,transitionalcompetenceWhatisInterlanguage?I23

Whataretheassumptionsunderlyinginterlanguagetheory?Theassumptionsunderlyinginterlanguagetheory--Nemser(1971)1)atanygiventimetheapproximativesystemisdistinctfromtheL1andL2.2)theapproximativesystemsformanevolvingseries.3)inagivencontactsituation,theapproximativesystemsoflearnersatthesamestageofproficiencyroughlycoincide.Whataretheassumptionsunde24Theconceptof‘hypothesis-testing’wasusedtoexplainhowtheL2learnerprogressedalongtheinterlanguagecontinuum,inmuchthesamewayasitwasusedtoexplainL1acquisition.Coder(1967)madethiscomparisonexplicitbyproposingthatatleastsomeofthestrategiesusedbytheL2learnerwerethesameasthosebywhichFLAtakesplace.Particularly,CordersuggestedthatbothL1andL2learnersmakeerrorsinordertotestoutcertainhypothesesaboutthenatureofthelanguagetheyarelearning.Hesawthemakingof

errorsasastrategies,evidenceoflearner-internalprocessing.Theconceptof‘hypothesis-tes25Whataretheprincipalprocessesoperatedininterlanguage?(P48)Fiveprincipalprocessesoperatedininterlanguage--Selinker1)languagetransfer2)overgeneralizationoftargetlanguagerules3)transferoftraining4)strategiesofL2learning5)strategiesofL2communicationWhataretheprincipalprocess26Theninterferencewasseenasoneofseveralprocessesresponsibleforinterlanguage.FiveprocessestogetherconstitutethewaysinwhichthelearnertriestointernalizetheL2system.ThefiveprocessesarethemeansbywhichthelearnertriestoreducethelearningburdentomanageableproportionsWiddowson(1975b)suggestedthatthefiveprocessescanbesubsumedunderthegeneralprocessof‘simplification’.(ThisconceptonPage304)Theninterferencewasseenas27Whatisfossilization?

Fossilization(P48):SelinkernotedthatmanyL2learners(perhapsasmanyas95percent)failtoreachtargetlanguagecompetence.Thatis,theydonotreachtheendoftheinterlanguagecontinuum.Theystoplearningwhentheirinterlanguagecontainsatleastsomerulesdifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguesystem.Hereferredtothisasfossilization.Whatisfossilization?Fossili28Fossilizedstructurescanberealizedaserrors

orascorrecttargetlanguageforms.Whenfossilizationoccurs,thelearnerhasreachedastageofdevelopmentinwhichfeaturexinhisinterlanguagehasassumedthesameformasinthetargetlanguage,thenfossilizationofthecorrectformwilloccur.Ifthelearnerhasreachedastageinwhichfeatureydoesnothavethesameformasthetargetlanguage,thefossilizationwillmanifestitselfaserror.Fossilizedstructuresmaynotbepersistent.SelinkerandLamendella(1978a)arguethatthecausesoffossilizationarebothinternalandexternal.Fossilizedstructurescanber29AccordingtoChomskyandothers,thetruedeterminantofL1acquisitionwasthechild’s‘acquisitiondevice’,butthischangedwiththeagesuchthatautomatic,genetically-endowedlanguageacquisitionwasnotpossibleafterpuberty.ThequestionforSLA,then,wasthis:howdidadultssucceedinlearningaL2atallifresourcetothe‘acquisitiondevice’responsibleforL1acquisitionwasnotpossible?AccordingtoChomskyandother30Selinkersuggestedthatthoseadultswhosuccessfullyachievenative-speakerproficiencyintheTLdosobecausetheycontinuetomakeuseofthe‘acquisitiondevice’,or,asLennebergputit,latentlanguagestructure.Selinkersuggestedthatthose31RelativelyfewadultL2learnersreachnative-speakercompetence.SelinkerexplainedthisbysuggestingthattheseadultL2learnersfallbackonamoregeneralcognitivemechanism,whichhelabelledlatentpsychologicalstructure,whichisstillgenetically-determined,butdoesnotinvolveresourcetoUG.RelativelyfewadultL2learne32Therefore,accordingtoSelinker,SLAcanproceedintwodifferentways.ItcanutilizethesamemechanismsasFLA,oritcanmakeuseofalternativemechanisms,whicharepresumablyresponsibleforothertypesoflearningapartfromlanguage.(cognitiveorganizer)Therefore,accordingtoSelink33WhataretheessentialCharacteristicsofLanguage-learnerlanguage?Language-learnerlanguageispermeable.TheL2learner’sinterlanguageispermeable,inthesensethatrulesthatconstitutethelearner’sknowledgeatanyonestagearenotfixed,butareopentoamendment.Language-learnerlanguageisdynamic.TheL2learner’sinterlanguageisconstantlychanging.However,hedoesnotjumpfromonestagetothenext,butratherslowlyrevisedtheinterimsystemstoaccommodatenewhypothesesaboutthetargetlanguesystem.Language-learnerlanguageissystematic.Despitethevariabilityofinterlanguage,itispossibletodetecttherule-basednatureofthelearner’suseoftheL2.WhataretheessentialCharact34WhatarethedifferencesbetweenErroranalysisandContrastiveAnalysisErroranalysisisaprocedureusedbybothresearchersandteachers.Itinvolvescollectingsamplesoflearnerlanguage,identifyingtheerrorsinthesample,describingtheseerrors,classifyingthemaccordingtotheirhypothesizedcauses,andevaluatingtheirseriousness.EarlyinterlanguagetheorywascloselyassociatedwithErrorAnalysis,whichconstitutedanattempttoexplainerrors.Inmentalisttheoryerrorsserveasevidenceofthelearner’sactivecontributiontoacquisition.ContrastiveAnalysiswasdevisedtojustifyproceduresforpredictingerrors.InaccordancewithBehaviouristlearningtheory,thepreventionoferrorswasmoreimportantthantheidentificationoferrors.Inbehavioristaccountserrorsweretreatedasevidenceofnon-learning.Whatarethedifferencesbetw35WhataretheproceduresforErrorAnalysisspelledoutinCorder?(1974)(P51)1.Acorpusoflanguageisselected.2.Theerrorsinthecorpusareidentified.3.Theerrorsareclassified.4.Theerrorsareexplained.5.Theerrorsareevaluated.WhataretheproceduresforEr36Thecontextforthenewinterestinerrorswastherecognitionthattheyprovidedinformationabouttheprocessofacquisition.Thistermhastwomeanings.Thustwoquestionscanbeaskedtherefore.1.whatlightcanthestudyoflearnererrorsthrowonthesequenceofdevelopment–theinterlanguagecontinuumthroughwhichlearnerspass?2.WhatlightcanshedonstrategiesthatthelearnerusestoassimilatetherulesofL2?Thesetwoquestionsareofcentralimportancetothemainthemeofthischapter—‘natural’orderofdevelopmentThecontextforthenewintere37WhatinformationaboutinterlanguagedoesErrorAnalysisprovide?(53)ErrorAnalysisprovidestwokindsofinformationaboutinterlanguage;LinguistictypesoferrorsPsycholinguistictypeoferrors:overgeneralization(comed)IgnoranceofrulerestrictionsIncompleteapplicationofrulesFalseconceptshypothesized(heisspeaksFrench)Whatinformationaboutinterla38ThemostsignificantcontributionofEA,apartfromtheroleitplayedinthereassessmentoftheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesis,liesinitssuccessinelevatingthestatusoferrorsfromundesirabilitytothatofaguidetotheinnerworkingsofthelanguagelearningprocess.AsaresultofinterlanguagetheoryandtheevidenceaccumulatedfromErrorAnalysis,errorswerenolongerseenas‘unwantedforms,butasevidenceofthelearner’sactivecontributiontoSLA.Themostsignificantcontribut39Whataretheempiricalevidencesfortheinterlanguagehypothesis?Empiricalevidencefortheinterlanguagehypothesisfrom:Cross-sectionalresearchLongitudinalstudiesWhataretheempiricaleviden40EmpiricalevidencesfortheinterlanguagehypothesisWhatevidencesfortheinterlangugehypothesisdotheresearcherstrytofind?‘creativeconstruction’interpretationoftheinterlanguagecontinuum.ClaimsthatSLAfollowsa‘natural’routeofdevelopment.Whatarethedifferencebetweenrestructuringcontinuumandrecreationcontunuum?(54)Whatisorderofdevelopment?Whatissequenceofdevelopment?WhatisthepurposeofCross-sectionalresearch?WhatisthepurposeofLongitudinalstudies?Empiricalevidencesforthei41Whatarethedifferencebetweenrestructuringcontinuumandrecreationcontunuum?(54)

1.Wasthecontinuumtobeconceivedasstretchingfromthelearner’smothertonguetothetargetlanguage?Corder(1978a)referstothisviewofthecontinuumasarestructuringcontinuum.Inthisviewthelearnerisseenasgraduallyreplacingfeaturesofhismothertongueasheacquiresfeaturesofthetargetlanguage.2.Alternatively,wasthecontinuumtobeconceivedasthegradualcomplexificationofinterlanguageknowledge?Corderreferstothisastherecreationcontinuum.Thismeansthatthelearnerisseenasslowlycreatingtherulesystemofthetargetlanguageinamannerverysimilartothechild’sacquisitionofhisfirstlanguage.Earlystatementsoftheinterlanguagehypothesistendedtoassumethatthecontinuumwasmainlyarestructuringone(seeforinstanceNemser1971).However,astheroleoftheL1begantobequestioned,thisviewfelloutoffavorandinterlanguagewasviewedasarecreationcontinuum(see,forinstance,DulayandBurt1977).Empiricalresearchplayedanimportantpartinthisshiftofviewpoint.Whatarethedifferencebetwee42Cross-sectionalresearchAnumberofstudies,commonlyreferredtoasthemorphemestudies,werecarriedouttoinvestigatetheorderofacquisitionofarangeofgrammaticalfunctorsinthespeechofL2learners.TheyweremotivatedbythehypothesisthattherewasaninvariantorderinSLAwhichwastheresultofuniversalprocessingstrategiessimilartothoseobservedinL1acquisition.Cross-sectionalresearchAnumb43WhataretheproceduresofCross-sectionalresearch?(55)First,data(oralandlaterwritten)wereelicitedfromasampleofL2learners,usingsomekindofelicitationdevicesuchastheBilingualSyntaxMeasure(Burtetal.1973).Thenextstepwastoidentifythegrammaticalitemswhichwerethetargetoftheinvestigation.Theprocedurefollowedhereinvolvedidentifyingtheobligatoryoccasions(P301)foreachiteminthespeechcorpus.Eachitemwasscoredaccordingtowhetheritwascorrectlyusedineachcontext,andanaccuracysocreofitstotalusebyallthelearnersinthestudywascalculated.Itwasthenpossibletorankalltheitemsinorderoftheiraccuracyscores.Thisproducedanaccuracyorder,whichwasequatedwithacquisitionorderonthegroundsthatthemoreaccuratelyanitemwasused,theearlieritwasacquired.WhataretheproceduresofCro44

Whatareobligatoryoccasions?Whenthelinguisticcontextnecessitatestheuseofaparticularmorpheme,itissaidtoconstitutean‘obligatoryoccasion’,Forexamplethecontextcreatedby‘Therearetwo____playinginthegarden’requirestheuseofapluralmorpheme.Thefirststepinestablishingtheaccuracylevelofindividualmorphemeistoidentifyallobligatoryoccasionsforthemorphemesinthedata.

Whatareobligatoryoccasions45AccuracyorderLearnersproduceL2morphemessuchasthethirdperson–sorthearticles,aandthe,withvaryinglevelsofaccuracyatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Accuracyorderscanbeobtainedbyrankinganumberofmorphemesaccordingtotheiraccuracylevel.SomeSLAresearchershavehypothesizedthattheaccuracyordercorrespondstotheacquisitionorder.AccuracyorderLearnersproduce46WhatarethefindingsofCross-sectionalresearch?(56--57)WhatarethefindingsofCross47Thegeneralpicturethatemergesisthatthe‘acquisitionorder’forthevariousgrammaticalfunctorsismoreorlessthesame,irrespectiveofthesubject’slanguagebackgrounds,oftheirage,andofwhetherthemediumisspeechorwriting.Theonlytimethatadifferentorderoccursiswhentheelicitationinstrumentrequiredthesubjectstofocusspecificallyontheformratherthanthemeaningoftheirutterances,asinsomeofthetasksinLarsen-Freeman’sstudy.ButasKrasen(1977:148)putsit,wherethedatarepresentedafocusonmeaningthere’s‘anamazingamountofuniformityacrossallstudies’.However,itshouldbenotedthatthestandardorderthatwasreportedwasdifferentfromtheorderofmorphemeacquisitionreportedforL1acquisition.Thegeneralpicturethatemerg48Theorderwasnotentirelyinvariableacrossstudies.DulayandBurt(1975)proposedthatratherthanlistthemorphemesinorderofaccuracy,itwasbettertogroupthemtogether.Eachgroupwouldreflectacleardevelopmentalstage,withthemorphemeswithineachgroupbeing‘acquired’atmoreorlessthesametime.Thesegroupingswererepresentedasa‘hierarchy’(seeFigure3.1onPage56)Onthefaceofit,themorphemestudiesprovidedstrongevidenceofa‘natural’sequenceofdevelopmentinSLA.Irrespectiveoflearnerdifferences,L2learnersappeartoprogressalongtheinterlanguagecontinuuminaverysimilarway.Themainhypothesisofinterlanguagetheory,therefore,wassupported.Theorderwasnotentirelyinv49Problem:Attemptstotestthevalidityofthestudiesagainstcasestudiesofindividuallearners(Hakuta1974;Rosansky1976)suggestedthat‘accuracyorder’wasnotthesameas‘acquisitionorder’.Theevidenceoftheselongitudinalstudiesrancountertothatofthemorphemestudies.Problem:50Longitudinalstudies

Longitudinalstudieshavetriedtoaccountforthegradualgrowthofcompetenceintermsofthestrategiesusedbyalearneratdifferentdevelopmentpoints.Longitudinalstudies

Longitudi51WhataretheadvantegesanddisadvantegesofLongitudinalstudies?(58)LongitudinalstudiesofSLAhaveonemajoradvantageoverbotheErrorAnalysisandthecross-sectionalstudies.TheyprovidedatafromdifferentpointsoftimeandthereforeenableareliableprofileoftheSLAofindividuallearnerstobeconstructed.Thedisadvantage,ofcourse,liesinthedifficultyofmakinggeneralizationsbasedontheprofilesofoneortwolearners.Whataretheadvantegesanddi52WhatdidLongitudinalstudiesresearchandwhatwerethefindings?

Thelongitudinalstudiesthatwillbediscussedinthissectionarethosethatfocusontheacquisitionofparticulargrammaticalsubsystems:

Nagatives

Interrogatives

RelatveclausesItisfromthesestudiesthatthestrongestevidenceforanaturalrouteofdevelopmentcomes.WhatdidLongitudinalstudies53ThedevelopmentofnegativesInitially,negativeutterancesarecharacterizedbyexternalnegation.Thatis,thenegativeparticle(usually‘no’)isattachedtoadeclarativenucleus:e.g.Noverygood.Noyouplayinghere.

Laterinternalnegationdevelops;thatis,thenegativeparticleismovedinsidetheutterance.Thisoftencoincideswiththeuseof‘not’and/or‘don’t’,whichisusedasthenegativeparticle.‘Don’t’atthisstage,however,isanunanalyzedunitandsocannotbedescribedas‘do+not’.e.g.Mariananotcomingtoday.Inocanswim.Idon’tseenothingmop.ThedevelopmentofnegativesIn54Athirdstepinvolvesnegativeattachmenttomodalverbs,althoughthismayagainoccurinunanalyzedunitsinitially.e.g.Ican’tplaythisone.Iwon’tgo.Inthefinalstageofnegationthetargetlanguageruleisreached.e.g.Hedoesn’tknowanything.Ididn’tsaidit.Shedidn’tbelieveme.Thewayalongthisrouteisagradualone,whichforsomelearnerscantakelongerthantwoyears.Thestagesarenotclearlydefined.Theyoverlap,sothatdevelopmentdoesn’tconsistofsuddenjumps,butofthegradualreorderingofearlyrulesinfavoroflaterones.Therearealsosomedifferencesamonglearners.Athirdstepinvolvesnegative551Noverygood.Noyouplayinghere2MariananotcomingtodayInocanswim.Idon’tseenothingmop.3Ican’tplaythisone.Iwon’tgo.4.Hedoesn’tknowanything.Ididn’tsaiditShedidn’tbelieveme1Noverygood.56Negation:externalnegationinternalnegationnegationwithmodalverbsnegationaccordingtotargetlgrulesNegation:externalnegation57Thedevelopmentofinterrogatives1)‘Non-communicative’stageThelearnerisnotabletoproduceanyspontaneousinterrogatives,butjustrepeatsaquestionsomeonehasaskedhim.Thefirstproductivequestionsareintonationquestions,i.e.utteranceswithdeclarativewordorderbutspokenwitharisingintonation.TherearealsosomeWh-questions,buttheseappeartohavebeenlearntasready-madechunks.e.g.Iamcolouring?Sirplaysfootballtoday?Iwritingonthisbooks?What’sthis?Thedevelopmentofinterrogati582)TheappearanceofproductiveWh-questions

Thereisnosubject-verbinversiontostartoffwith,andtheauxiliaryverbisoftenomitted.e.g.Whatyouaredoing?What‘tub’mean?Whatthetime?Whereyouwork?

2)Theappearanceofproductiv59Inversionoccursinyes/noquestionsandinWh-questions.Inversionwith‘be’tendstooccurbeforeinversionwith‘do’.e.g.Areyouanurse?Whereisthegirl?Doyouworkinthetelevision?Whatisshe‘sdoinghere?Inversionoccursinyes/noque604)EmbeddedquestionsarethelasttodevelopedWhentheyfirstappear,theyhaveasubject-verbinversion,asinordinaryWh-questions.e.g.Itellyouwhatdidhappen.Later,thelearnersuccessfullydifferentiatethewordorderofordinaryande