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CoughandexpectorationCoughingisanessentialdefensemechanismthatitpreventstheairwaysfromtheforeignsubstanceandcleartheexcretionofrespiratorytract. Coughingisareflex.permanentandfrequentcoughingindicatesanabnormality.MechanismExtrathoraciccoughreceptors(locatedinnoseoropharynxlarynxanduppertrachea)intrathoraciccoughreceptors(locatedinlowtracheaandlargecentralbronchi)Afferent(vague,trigeminal,superiorlaryngeal,glosso-pharyngealnerves)Efferentrecurrentlaryngealnerve---closureofglottiscorticospinaltractandperipheralnerves-------contractionofthoracicandabdominalmusculature.ThecoughreflexAdeepbreath---glotticclosure---relaxationofdiaphragm,contractionofexpiratorymuscle---positivethoracicpressure--suddenlyreleaseofglottisopen---thoracicpositivepressureairflowout---coughreflexEtiologyRespiratorypleuraldiseasecardiovasculardiseasecentralnervesystemfactorRespiratorydiseaseStimulator---extraandintrathoracic---fromnose,oropharynx---bronchi---coughreflex.suchas:1.inhalationofforeignmaterial2.inflammationofrespiratorytract3.bleedingofrespiratorytract4.tumorofrespiratorytractPleuralDiseaseSuchas: pleurisy,thoraciceffusion pleuralbiopsyorpleuracentisisCardiovascularDisease
Mitralstenosis---leftheartfailure---pulmonaryedema---trausudateorexudate---stimulatesintra-thoracic-coughreceptor---cough Embolismofpulmonarycancausepulmonaryvenouspressureelevate---pulmonaryedema---transudateorexudate---stimulatesintrathoraciccoughreceptor---coughCentralnervesystemInflammatoryofCNScancausecoughingsuchas:encephalitisandmeningitisExpectorationExpectorationisapathologicalphenomenonthathumanbeingremovethepathologicalsecretionfromrespiratorysystembymeansofcoughingExpectorationThedailyquantityofbronchialsecretionsproducedbyanormalpersonisunknown.Butitissufficientlysmalltoberemovedbymucocillaryactionalone. CoughandexpectorationarenotrequiredExpectorationExcessiveproductionAlteredphysicalpropertiesDeficientclearanceThesefactorscausethesecretionsaccumulateinthetracheobronchialsystemandcauseexpectoration.ExpectorationMechanical,chemical,physicalandallergicfactorscancauserespiratorymucosaedema,congestionandcausetransudateorexudatethencoughandexpectorationappearsExpectorationSuchas: 1)Inflammationincludevirus,bacteria,funguscancausecoughingandexpectoration. 2)Acuteleftheartfailurecancausepulmonaryedemaandpinkfoamysputum.ManifestationCharacterofcoughThedurationandpatternofcoughThetonequalityofcoughThecharacterandvolumeofsputumCharacterofcough
Coughwithoutsputum---unproductiveordrycoughmainlyinthepatientofacutepharyngitis,earlystageofbronchitis,pleurisyandTB. Coughwithsputumiscalledproductive.Itiscausedbypneumonia,chronicbronchitis,bronchiectasis,lungabscessandcavitiousTBThecharacterandvolumeofsputumclear,white,graysputum--chronicbronchitistenaciousstickymucoidsputum-----asthmatics(occasionallywithbronchialcast)foul-smellingpurulentsputum--bronchiectasissputumwithcalcificparticles-----broncholithoptysisThedurationandpatternofcough
Coughinitiatedsuddenly---acuteupperairwayinfectionChroniccough---chronicbronchitis,bronchialasthmaandTBParoxysmalcough---whoopingcough,bronchicompressedbytumorandTBThedurationandpatternofcough
Periodiccough---chronicbronchitisbronchiectasisrelatedtothechangeofbodyposition. Nocturnalcough---asthma,TB,chronicheartfailure--associatedwiththevagalexcitationatnight.Thetonequalityofcough
Itmeansthechangeofthesoundandmaysuggestthethelocationofpathology.“breaking”cough---epiglottaldisease“brassy”cough---trachealairways“hacking”or“cleaningofthroat”--postnasaldischarge“barking”or“croupy”--laryngealdisease.ThetonequalityofcoughHoarsenesswithcough---larynto-trachealbronchitisorimpairedthefunctionofrecurrentlaryngealnerve,asfromaneurysmoftheaorta,leftatrialenlargement,mediastinalmalignancy. Inspiratorystridor---upperairwayobstructionThetonequalityofcoughCoughwithhemoptysisalsoraisesthepossibilityofamalignantprocess,bronchiectasis,lungabscess,chronicbronchitis.Theassociatedclinicalfeaturescoughwithfever---acuterespiratoryinfectionincludingmeasles,pneumonia,influenza,lungabscess,TB,pleurisy.coughwithchestpain---pluralcavityinvolve,heartdisease,pneumonia,pleurisy,bronchogeniccarcinoma.Theassociatedclinicalfeaturescoughwithdyspnea--------edemaoflarynx,larynxtumor,chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease,severpneumonia,TB,massivepleuraleffusion,pulmonarycongestion,pneumothoraxandpulmonaryedema. coughwithquantitativepurulentsputum---bronchiectasis,lungabscess,bronchi-fistula.TheassociatedclinicalfeaturesCoughwithhemoptysis---bronchiectasis,TB,lungtumor,lungabscess,mitralstenosis. coughwithclubbedfingers---bronchiectasis,TB,lungabscess,carcinomaoflung,thoracicempyema.TheassociatedclinicalfeaturesCoughwithwheeze---bronchialasthma,cardiacasthma,foreignbodyintracheaandbronchi.Complicationofcoughpneumomediastinumposttussicemesistussicsyncoperibfracturespontaneouspneumothoraxbullousemphysemaabdominalhernias
Anychangeincharacterorpatternofachroniccoughwarrantsimmediatediagnosticevaluation,withspecialattentiondirectedtowardsthedetectionofbronchogeniccarcinoma.HemoptysisHemoptysisistheexpectorationofbloodfromairwayblowlarynx.Hemoptysispatientsshouldbeexaminedthenose,mouthandupperrespiratorytracttobefoundthehemorrhagicspot.Hemoptysisthequantityofbloodmayvaryfromstreaksandflecksinthesputumtomassivehemorrhage.minimalbleedingmaybeanearlyindicatorofthepresenceofseriousbronchopulmonarydisease.hemorrhagesofevenmoderatedegreemaylifethreatening.HemoptysisAbout50percentofthechestfilmsofthehemoptysispatientshownoabnormalitiesoronlyminimalnonspecificchange.Hemoptysismaybetheinitialorthesolesymptomofbronchopulmonarydisease.Thesefactorssometimescausethedignosticproblem.Etiology1.Bronchialdisease2.lungdisease3.cardiovasculardisease4.constitutionaldisease1.Bronchialdiseasehemoptysisoccurinbronchiectasis,chronicbronchitis,endobronchialtuberculosisandbronchogeniccarcinoma.Alsooccurinthebenignbronchogenictumor,bronchiectasis,foreignbody,bronchogenicnonspecificulceration.1.BronchialdiseaseTheinflammatoryprocessleadtotheincreasethepermeabilityofcapillaryandraptureofvesselsinbronchialmucosaandtheninducehemoptysis.blood-streakedsputumoccasionallyoccurinthecourseofacutebronchitis.2.LungdiseaseThesputumofpneumococcalpneumoniaisdescribedas“rusty”inappearance.PulmonaryTBisthecommoncauseofthehemoptysis.CavitiousTBmaycausetheexpectorationoffrankbloodfrompulmonarycavity.2.LungdiseaseLungabscessmayberelatedtoputridsmellingsputumandexpectorationofblood.hemoptysisoccurin25percentofthepatientofpulmonaryembolismandinfarction.pulmonaryfungiandparasiteinfectionmayalsoserveasthesourcesofhemoptysis.3.CardiovasculardiseasePinkfrothysputum---acutepulmonaryedemabloodstreakedsputum--acutepulmonarycongestionbloodcomesfrompulmonarycapillarieswhichrupturedunderhighintravascularpressure.3.CardiovasculardiseaseHemoptysisduetomitralstenosisisfrequentlyinducedbyphysicalexerciseorexcitement.Bloodcomesfromabreakinthepulmonaryveinswhichhaverupturedunderhighpressure.Thebleedingisduetoruptureofendobronchialvesselsthatfromcollateralchannelsbetweenthebronchialveinsandpulmonaryvenoussystem.Thebleedingtendtosubsideastheveinsadapttohighpressureandaspulmonaryarteriolardiseasedevelops.3.CardiovasculardiseaseManypulmonaryembolidonotleadtopulmonaryinfarction,whentheydo,frankhemoptysisoccursintheminorityofinstance.whenhemoptysisoccurinthepulmonaryinfarctionoftheheartfailurepatient,thebloodsputumusuallyappearswithinafewhourstoadayaftertheembolus,andthisisduetonecrosisandhemorrhagesintothealveoli.3.CardiovasculardiseaseHemoptysisisalsoassociatedwithcongenitalcardiacdiseaseandaorticaneurysms4.Constitutionaldisease
Bloodspittingmayalsooccurinthepatientssufferingfromcertainblooddyscrasias,suchashemophilia,leukemiaandinfectiousdisease,connectivetissuedisease.
Clinicalmanifestation1.thepatient’sage.2.theamountofcoughingupblood.3.colorandcharacter.1.Thepatient’sageHemoptysisisoftenseeninpulmonaryTB,bronchiectasisandrheumaticheartdisease(mitralstenosis)formostyouth.Cancerisnowthediseasethatpatientsthinkofwhentheyexpectorateblood,justasitwasTB50yearsago.1.Thepatient’sageElderpatientwithbloodysputumorstreakedofbloodysputum,especiallyinthemaleswithlonghistoryofsmoking.cancershouldbetakenintoaccount.PatientsclosecontactwithTBsuffer,TBshouldbeconsidered.1.Thepatient’sageParagonimiasismaysuspectedinthepeoplewithhistoryofeatingraworimproperlycookedcrabsorcrayfish.Epidemichemorrhagicfever,leptospirosisalsocancausehemoptysis,theyareendemicdisease.2.TheamountofcoughingupbloodHemoptysiscanbeclassifiedintothreegroupsaccordingtotheamountofcoughingblood.Massive:expectoration>500ml/24hr.Moderate:500ml>expectoration>100ml/24hrminimal:expectoration<100ml/24hr
2.TheamountofcoughingupbloodmassivehemoptysisoftenoccursinpulmonaryTBcavity,chroniclungabscessandbronchiectasis.3.Colorandcharacter.
Toahemoptysispatient,itisnecessarytoascertaintheexactnatureofthesputum,thesputummustbeexaminedbothgrosslyandmicroscopically.3.ColorandcharacterItisusefultodeterminewhetherthematerialthatiscoughedupcontainslargeamountofliquidblood,whichisindicatesbriskbleeding,orwhetheritcontainssmallamountofdarkorclottedblood,whichwouldindicateslowbleedingfromlow-pressurevesselsorsubsidingbleeding.
3.ColorandcharacterBriskbleedingiscommonlyassociatedwithspecificfocalulcerationofthebronchus,suchasbronchogeniccarcinoma,aforeignbody,bronchiectasisorableedingaorticaneurysm.Slowbleedingstronglysuggestsvenousbleedingwhichismorelikelytobetheresultofincreasedinbloodflowthroughthebronchialvenoussystemsuchasmayoccurasaresultofmitralstenosisorbronchiectasis.AccompanyingsymptomHemoptysiswithfever:pulmonarytuberculosis,pneumonia,lungabscess,lopeospirosis,epidemichemorrhagicfever,bronchogeniccarcinoma.Hemoptysiswithchestpain:lobarpneumonia,pulmonaryinfarction,pulmonaryTB,lungcancer.AccompanyingsymptomHemoptysiswithputridsputum:lungabscesscavitiousTB,bronchiectasis.Hemoptysiswithirritatingcough:bronchogeniccarcinoma,mycoplasmapneumonia.AccompanyingsymptomHemoptysiswithskinandmucosableeding:hematologicaldisease,epidemichemorrhagicfever,rheumatism,leptospirosis.Hemoptysiswithjaundice:leptospirosis,lobarpneumonia,pulmonaryinfarction.ThedistinctionbetweenhemoptysisandhematemsisPhysicalexaminationofthechestSignificanceGeneralconditioncomprehensionConfirmhistoryinformationSpecificsigncollectionforthediagnosisofcertaindisease&inferscertainaccessoryexaminesGrosslyprecludesomecertaindisordersContributearelationbetweenthephysicianandthepatientMentionofConductionExposure/warmth/lighting/easyairInspection,palpation,percussion,auscultationAnterior-lateral-posteriorTop-baseComparison:toptobase/lefttorightBonelandmarksuprasternalnotch(胸骨上切跡)clavicle(鎖骨)Manubriumsterni(胸骨柄)Sternalangle(胸骨角)Louisanglesuprabdominalangle(腹上角)xiphoidprocess(劍突)Ribs&interspacesscapula(肩胛骨)spinousprocess(棘突)costolspinalangle(肋脊角)VerticallinesAnteriolmiddleline(前正中線)Mid-clavicularlines(鎖骨中線)Spinalline(後正中線)
axillarylines(anteriol,middle,posteriol)(腋前、中、後線)Scapularlines(肩胛線)Naturalfossa&anatomicregionAxillaryfossaSupraclavicularfossaSuprasternalfossaInfraclavicularfossaSuprascapularregionInfrascapularregionInterscapularregionTheboundaryoflung&pleuraLungapexUpperboundaryofthelungOuterboundaryInnerboundaryLowerboundary:Midclavicularline6thinterspaceMidaxillaryline8thinterspaceInferiorline10thinterspaceChestwallVein:BloodflowdirectionSubcutaneiusemphysema(皮下氣腫)TendernessInterspaceChestframworkNormalA-P/Tdiameter:1/1.5FlatchestBarrelchestRachiticchestRachiticrosary(肋骨串珠)
Funnelchest(漏斗胸)UnilateraldeformationLocalbulgeofchestwallThoracicdeformitycausedbydeformedspineInspectionBreathingmovement:DiaphragmaticvscostalrespirationRespiratoryrate:---Tachypnea---Bradypnea---ChangeofthebreathdepthsInspection(2)Rhythmofthebreath---Tidalbrathing---Ataxicbreathing---Inhibitorybreathing---SighingrespirationNormalBradypneaTachypneaKusmolsbreathSighingrespirationTidalbreathAtaxicbreathInhibitorybreathPalpationVocalfremitus(觸覺語顫)ThoracicexpansionPleuralfrictionfremitus(胸膜摩擦感)ConfirmetheinspectionPercussion
Method:mediatepercussion(Technics)
immediatepercussionplexemeter/plexorfingerPercussionnotesandtheircharacteristicsInfluencingfactorsforpercussionLungboundariesbeingpercussed
Kronigisthmusthemovementrangeofthe
lowerpulomonaryboundary
Midclavicularline6thinterspaceMidaxillaryline8thinterspaceInferiorline10thinterspaceAuscultationNormalbreathsound
vesicularbreathsoundbronchialbreathsoundbronchovescicularbreathsoundAbnormalbreathsoundDecreasedorabsentIncreasedalveolarbreathsoundJ:LowerbreathingJ:ExertyourbreathingAdventitioussoundsDiscontnuousContnuousfinecoarsewheezesrhonchusDry/rhonchiRale/crackesmoistrale(crackles)RhonchiVocalresonancepleuralrubbing:crepitusAdventitioussoundExtra-pulmonarysignCyanosis:Clubbingfingers:Paraneoplasticsyndrones:CentralperipheralLobepneumoniaCough,chestpain,dyspneaConsolidationsigns,pleuralfremitusWBC,lobelinfiltrationonchestfilmBronchialAsthma
shortofbreathOverinflationwheeze,dyspneaEOS
chestfilmandsputumchangesemphysemaIncreasingonsetofexertionaldyspneaBarrelchest,prolongedexpiration,decreasedordiminutionbreathsoundX-ray:overinflation,flattendiaphragm,driplikeheart.Respirationfunction:obstructiveabnormalitywithincreasedRV(>40%TLC)PleuralEffusion DullnessChestpainShortofbreathDullnessonpercussionDisappearedbreathingsoundChestfilmPneumothorax
AbruptchestpainafterinducingfactorshortofbreathTympaniorhyperresonanceonpercussionChestwallinflationAbsent/decreasedbreathingsoundChestfilmSubcutaneousemphysemaBarralchestwall,decreasedmovemnt,neckveindistensionHyperresonanceDecreasedbreathingsoundPhysicalexaminationofthechestSignificanceGeneralconditioncomprehensionConfirmhistoryinformationSpecificsigncollectionforthediagnosisofcertaindisease&inferscertainaccessoryexaminesGrosslyprecludesomecertaindisordersContributearelationbetweenthephysicianandthepatientMentionofConductionExposure/warmth/lighting/easyairInspection,palpation,percussion,auscultationAnterior-lateral-posteriorTop-baseComparison:toptobase/lefttorightBonelandmarksuprasternalnotch(胸骨上切跡)clavicle(鎖骨)Manubriumsterni(胸骨柄)Sternalangle(胸骨角)Louisanglesuprabdominalangle(腹上角)xiphoidprocess(劍突)Ribs&interspacesscapula(肩胛骨)spinousprocess(棘突)costolspinalangle(肋脊角)VerticallinesAnteriolmiddleline(前正中線)Mid-clavicularlines(鎖骨中線)Spinalline(後正中線)
axillarylines(anteriol,middle,posteriol)(腋前、中、後線)Scapularlines(肩胛線)Naturalfossa&anatomicregionAxillaryfossaSupraclavicularfossaSuprasternalfossaInfraclavicularfossaSuprascapularregionInfrascapularregionInterscapularregionTheboundaryoflung&pleuraLungapexUpperboundaryofthelungOuterboundaryInnerboundaryLowerboundary:Midclavicularline6thinterspaceMidaxillaryline8thinterspaceInferiorline10thinterspaceChestwallVein:BloodflowdirectionSubcutaneiusemphysema(皮下氣腫)TendernessInterspaceChestframworkNormalA-P/Tdiameter:1/1.5FlatchestBarrelchestRachiticchestRachiticrosary(肋骨串珠)
Funnelchest(漏斗胸)UnilateraldeformationLocalbulgeofchestwallThoracicdeformitycausedbydeformedspineInspectionBreathingmovement:DiaphragmaticvscostalrespirationRespiratoryrate:---Tachypnea---Bradypnea---ChangeofthebreathdepthsInspection(2)Rhythmofthebreath---Tidalbrathing---Ataxicbreathing---Inhibitorybreathing---SighingrespirationNormalBradypneaTachypneaKusmolsbreathSighingrespirationTidalbreathAtaxicbreathInhibitorybreathPalpationVocalfremitus(觸覺語顫)ThoracicexpansionPleuralfrictionfremitus(胸膜摩擦感)ConfirmetheinspectionPercussion
Method:mediatepercussion(Technics)
immediatepercussionplexemeter/plexorfingerPercussionnotesandtheircharacteristicsInfluencingfactorsforpercussionLungboundariesbeingpercussed
Kronigisthmusthemovementrangeofthe
lowerpulomonaryboundary
Midclavicularline6thinterspaceMidaxillaryline8thinterspaceInferiorline10thinterspaceAuscultationNormalbreathsound
vesicularbreathsoundbronchialbreathsoundbronchovescicularbreathsoundAbnormalbreathsoundDecreasedorabsentIncreasedalveolarbreathsoundJ:LowerbreathingJ:ExertyourbreathingAdventitioussoundsDiscontnuousContnuousfinecoarsewheezesrhonchusDry/rhonchiRale/crackesmoistrale(crackles)RhonchiVocalresonancepleuralrubbing:crepitusAdventitioussoundExtra-pulmonarysignCyanosis:Clubbingfingers:Paraneoplasticsyndrones:CentralperipheralLobepneumoniaCough,chestpain,dyspneaConsolidationsigns,pleuralfremitusWBC,lobelinfiltrationonchestfilmBronchialAsthma
shortofbreathOverinflationwheeze,dyspneaEOS
chestfilmandsputumchangesemphysemaIncreasingonsetofexertionaldyspneaBarrelchest,prolongedexpiration,decreasedordiminutionbreathsoundX-ray:overinflation,flattendiaphragm,driplikeheart.Respirationfunction:obstructiveabnormalitywithincreasedRV(>40%TLC)PleuralEffusion DullnessChestpainShortofbreathDullnessonpercussionDisappearedbreathingsoundChestfilmPneumothorax
AbruptchestpainafterinducingfactorshortofbreathTympaniorhyperresonanceonpercussionChestwallinflationAbsent/decreasedbreathingsoundChestfilmSubcutaneousemphysemaBarralchestwall,decreasedmovemnt,neckveindistensionHyperresonanceDecreasedbreathingsoundFeverFeverNormalbodytemperature:37oC,Circadianvariation<1oCDefinitionoffever:AnelevationofcorebodytemperatureabovethenormalrangerectalT0.5oC>oralT0.5oC>axillaryT(腋溫)FeverHyperthermia(體溫過高)feverduetoadisturbanceofthermalregulatorycontrolexcessiveheatproductiondecreaseddissipationlossofregulationPathophysiologyBodytemperatureisdeterminedbytwoopposingprocesses
heatproductionheatlossTheyareregulatedbythecentralnervoussystemEnergyintheformofheatisgeneratedbylivingtissues(thermogenesis)EnergymaybepassivelyabsorbedfromtheenvironmentandtransfertheenergytothesurroundingmediumPathophysiologyThebodytemperatureisundercontrolofthepreopticareaoftheanteriorhypothalamus(下丘腦)
Thermostat
(恒溫器)ItreceivesinputfrombothcentralreceptorsandperipheralreceptorsHeatproductionandheatlossBasalmetabolicrateiscontrolledbyhypothalamus,byvaryingthelevelofcirculatingthyroxine(腎上腺素)Increasedmusclesensitivity(shivering)Byvaryingthevolumeofbloodflowingtoskin’ssurface(>100fold)Byvaporization(exocrinesweating)Setpoint370C390CHeatProductionHeatLossHeatProductionHeatLossPathophysiologyElevationofbodyTemperatureshiveringthermogenesisanddermalvasoconstriction
sympatheticoutflowCoolingmechanismsweatinganddermalvasodilationmixtureofsympatheticandparasympatheticpathwaysPathophysiologyHypothalamicthermostatSetpoint:37oClowest:4a.m;peak:6~10p.mFeverfollowthispatternFactorsaffectbodyTemperatureexercisemenstrualcycleenvironmental
temperaturePyrogensNeuroimmunoendocrineSubstancesthatcancausefeverEitherexogenousorendogenousExogenousPyrogensFromoutsidethehost(somemaybetheendogenousproducts)Majorityaremicroorganism,theirproductsortoxinsG-:endotoxin(內毒素)
(lipopolysaccaride,LPS)(脂多糖)G+:lipoteichoicacid(脂磷壁酸)
peptidoglycan(肽聚糖)
variessuperantigensandenterotoxinsExogenousPyrogensOthers(endogenousproducts)complementproductssteroidhormonemetablitesantigen-antibodycomplexwithcomplementMostofthemarewithhighmoleculeweightCouldnotpenetrateblood-brainbarrier
EndogenousPyrogenInresponsetoinvasivestimuli:exogenouspyrogenchemicalagents(amphotericinandotherdrug)
Producedbythehost,cellsofimmunesystemDesignated‘monokines’and‘lymphokins’cytokines(細胞因數)EndogenousPyrogenCytokinesIL-1IL-1TNFTNFIFNIL-6Phagocytesandlymphocytes:majorsourceofpyrogeniccytokinesItmayalsoreleasedthroughautonomousproductionandsecretionPathogenesisoffeverPyrogeniccytokinesbindreceptorspresentonvascularendothelialcellsthatliewithinthehypothalamusResettingthehypothalamicthermoregulatorycenterbyincreasedprostaglandinandcAMPPathogenesisoffeverBacteriaprovokereleaseofIL-1ViralproteinsstimulateIFNCombinedproductionofseveralcytokinescausefeverProductionofendogenouspyrogensEtiologyandclassificationInfectivefeverNon-infectivefeverInfectivefeverMetabolitesfromorganismcausefeverMostcommoncausesoffever(50%~60%)Bacteriapyrogens:commoncauseofinfectivefever(43%)Viralpyrogens:(6%)Non-infectivefeverAbsorptionofnecroticsubstances:
injuryischemicnecrosiscellnecrosisAllergyAntibioticsEndocrineandmetabolicdisturbances:hyperthyroidismdehydrationDecreasedeliminationofheatfromskin:
heatfailureNon-infectivefeverDysfunctionofcentralheatregulationphysical:heatstrokechemical:barbituratepoisoningmechanical:cerebralhemorrhageDysfunctionofvegetativenervoussystemsympatheticoveractivityClinicalmanifestationThegradeoffeverLowgradefever:37.3~38oCModeratefever:38~39oCHighfever:39.1~41oCHyperthermiafever:>41oCClinicalmanifestationClinicalcourseoffeverOnset:Suddenonsetwithinfewhours
pneumoniaGradualonsetgraduallyforfewdays
typhoid
Persistence:variespatternSubsidence:bycrisisorlysisCharacteroffeverContinuousT:keptat39oC~40oCconstantlyCircadianvariation:<1oC
pneumoniatyphoidfeverRemittentT:>39oCcircadianvariation>2oCrheumaticfevertuberculosissepticaemiasepticinflammationCharacteroffeverIntermittentT:suddenrising(fewhours)andsuddendecreasingmalariaacutepyelonephritisRecurrentT:abruptlyrisingtothepeak,lastingforseveralday,suddendecreasetothenormalrepeatedlyHodgkindiseaseCharacteroffeverUndulantT:risinggraduallytothepeak(>39oC)decreasinggraduallytothenormalrepeatedlyforseveraltimesBrucellosisIrregulartuberculosisrheumaticfeverbrochopneumoniaFeverpatternasdiagnosticcluesFeverPatternCauseAlternate-dayfeverPlasmodiumvivax,P.OvaleFevereverythirddayP.MalariaeRelapsingfeverdailyfor3~6daysBorreliasp,ratbitefeverfever-freeinterval(Streptobacillusmoniliformis;forabout1weekSpirillumminus)supervenesContinuous“undulating”Brucellosis,typhoidPeriodicpyrexiaHodgkin’sdisease(Pel-EbsteinPhenomenon)withvariablecyclesFeverofunknownorigin(FUO)FUOdefinedbyPetersdorfandBeeson(1961)
Fevershigherthan38.3oConseveraloccasionsAdurationofmorethan3weeksFailuretoreachadiagnosisafter1weekofinpatientinvestigation70%~90%ofthecasescanbediagnosedModification
ThreeoutpatientvisitsorthreedaysinthehospitalTwoweeksoffeverSummaryFever:elevationofsetpointHeatproduction/conservation
shiveringdermalvasoconstriction
Heatloss
sweatingdermalvasodilationPyrogen:exogenousorendogenous
endotoxin(LPS)pyrogeniccytokines
PGEs
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