语言与文化考试重点

Generally,phrasalverbsoccuroftenincolloquialEnglish,whiletheircorrespondingsinglewordsarefrequentlyfoundinwriting.1.1Idiomsotherthanphrasalverbs(theyarecloselyrelatedwithEnglishculture.TounderstandthemproperlyoneneedstoattainfamiliaritywithEnglishculturefromwhichtheyhavedeveloped.)1.1.1IdiomsinrelationtomannerismsTosplitone’ssidewithlaughter当心笑破了肚皮Tokeepastraightface不动声色Topullsomebody’sleg开某人的玩笑/捉弄某人Torideone’shighhorse趾高气扬Toholdone’sheadhigh昂首挺胸/充满自信Tomakeacatlaugh把死人逗笑了Tomakeone’sfleshcreep使人汗毛真竖/让人直起鸡皮疙瘩Tomakeaface作个鬼脸Nottobataneyelid眼不眨，心不跳/处之泰然1.1.2IdiomsinrelationtolifephilosophyAbigfishinasmallpond鹤立鸡群/Milkandwater平淡如水Mindone’sp’sandq’s注意言行举止Nomanisanisland没能人是一座孤岛Justwhatthedoctorordered医生的话不能不听，也不能全听Tokeepone’snoseclean保持一身清白NotforalltheteainChina给我一座金山，我也不干1.1.3IdiomsinrelationtoloveandmarriageAmalechauvinist大男子主义Amarriageofconvenience功利婚姻Themarriageoftrueminds真诚的结合Toloveatfirstsight一见钟情Mr/MissRight白马王子/绝色佳人1.1.4OthersNottominceone’swords直言不讳Tomisstheboat坐失良机Aninedayswonder昙花一现Notinahundredyears永远不能成功/一辈子也干不成Tokeepone’sowncompany独来独往Toknowsomethinglikethepalmofone’shand了如指掌Toknowone’sonionsAninetofivejob朝九晚五Tomoveheavenandearthtodosomething费了九牛二虎之力/连吃奶的力气都用上了Tomakebrickswithoutstraw做无米之饮BetweenScyllaandCharybdis腹背受敌/进退两难2.Proverbs（apreverbisabrieffamiliarmaximoffolkwisdom,usuallycompressedinform,ofeninvolvingaboldimagearefrequentlyajinglethatcatchesthememory）2.1proverbsrelatedtoChristianityManproposes,Goddisposes.谋事在人，成事在天MillsofGodgrindslowbutsure天网恢恢，疏而不漏Godhelpthosewhohelpthemselves自助者天助之WhomGodwouldruin,hefirstdeprivesofreason上帝要毁灭谁，必先夺其理性WhomtheGodslovedieyoung上帝的宠儿早夭折Eachcrosshathitsowninscription每个十字架都有自己的铭文Godsendsmeatandthedevilsendscooks.上帝赐给食物，魔鬼派来厨师Hethatservesgodformoneywillservethedevilforbetterwages.为金钱而侍奉上帝的人会为更多的报酬服侍魔鬼2.2proverbsderivedfromtheBibleandgreatEnglishliteraryworksNevercastyourpearlsbeforeswine。不可明珠暗投。/不可对牛谈琴。Hethatincreasethknowledgeincreasethsorrow知识越广，遗憾越多。Gossipingandlyinggohandinhand闲话与谎话结伴同行Pridegoesbeforeahall骄傲是失败的向导Allareofthedust,andallturntothedustagain从从来自泥土，又变回泥土Judgenotaccordingtoappearance.不可根据外表判断/勿以貌取人Greatmenarenotalwayswise.伟人并非事事聪明WaterMargin水浒传DreamofRedMansions红楼梦Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet玫瑰无论叫什么名字都是香的Alltheworldisastage.Andallthemenandwomenaremerelyplayers.整个世界就是个大舞台，形形色色的人们只是其中的演员。Lifeisbutawalkingshadow人生不是移动的影子Itisbettertobeabeggarthanafool作乞丐胜过作傻瓜Uneasyliestheheadthatwearscrown戴王冠的脑袋躺不安稳Everywisemandreadethhisenemy聪明人不吃眼前亏Bettertoreigninhellthanserveinheaven宁在地狱为群，不在天堂为臣Thechildisfatheroftheman从小知其人Knowledgeispower知识就是力量2.3proverbsrelatedtoGreco-RomancivilizationonefallsintoScyllainseekingtoavoidCharybdis为避虎穴，又入狼窝。withoutCeresandBacchus,Venusgrowscold离开克瑞斯和巴克劳动保护，维纳斯便心灰意冷FarfromJupiter,farfromthunder远离朱庇特，远离了雷电IfeartheGreeksevenwhentheybringgifts.希腊人送礼时也让我害怕MarryinMay,repentalways.五月结婚，后悔终身。Homersometimesnods智者千虑，必有一失Fromhisfoot,youmayknowHercules.从他的脚，你就可以认出大力士2.4proverbsrelatedtogeographyCarrycoalstoNewcastle北煤上煤都，多此一举。LemsterbreadandWeableyale,dunmowbaconandDoncasterdaggers.吐鲁番的葡萄，哈密的瓜，库车的姑娘美如花。Englandistheringingisland英国是充满钟声的岛屿Blessedistheeye,thatisbetwixtSevernandWye塞文河和瓦伊河之间的风光，令人大饱眼福Oxfordforlearning,LondonforWit,HullforwomenandYordforhorses.牛津人学问好，伦敦人才智高，哈勒的女人美，约克的马匹好2.5proverbsrelatedtonavigationmanydropsofwaterwillsinktheship积漏成多会沉掉航船itisahardsailingwhenthereisnowind风平浪静，艰难航程asmoothseanevermadeaskillfulmariner海水平静难造就优秀水手agreatshipasksdeepwater大船深水行thegoodseamanisknowninbadweather天气恶劣才能显出优秀航海家.Littleboatsmustkeeptotheshore小船沉岸行Hethatwouldsailwithoutdangermustnevercomeonthemainsea航行怕风险，绝不要去大海Ratsdesertasinkingship船沉鼠要逃/树倒猢狲散。Asmallleakwillsinkagreatship小漏沉大船/蝼蚁之穴能溃千里之堤。Anyportinastorm船在暴风雨中不择港口/慌不择路Letanother’sshipwreckbeyourseamark别人的沉船，就是你的航标/前车之覆，后车之鉴。2.6proverbsrelatedtowinethereareleestoeverywine凡酒都有沉淀。/金无足赤，人无完人Wineandwenchesemptymen’spurses酒色掏空男人的钱包Wineisaturncoat,firstafriend,thenanenemy酒是叛徒，先是朋友，后是敌人Wineisoldmen’smilk婴儿离不开奶，老汉离不开酒Winemakesallkindsofcreaturesattable酒使人丑态百出Wineandjudgmentmaturewithage酒沉味醇，人老识深BacchushathdrownedmorementhanNeptune酒比海淹死的人多2.7proverbsrelatedtoindividualismanEnglishman’shouseishiscastle英国人的家也是他们的城堡donotwearoutyourwelcome客人呆得太久不受欢迎evenreckoningmakeslongfriends.明算帐，友谊长Tellmoneyafteryourownfather父子也是清帐2.8proverbsrelatedtosexismbewareoftheforepartofawoman,thehindpartofamule,andallsidesofapriest当心女人的美貌，骡子的后蹄和牧师的一切dallynotwithmoneyorwomen金钱、女人玩弄不得gaming,women,andwine,whiletheylaugh,theymakemenpine赌博、女人和酒，使男人在笑声中消瘦maidswantnothingbuthusbands,andwhenhavethem,theywanteverything。姑娘除了丈夫外什么都不要；一旦有了丈夫，她们什么都要。themorewomenlookintheirglass,thelesstheylooktotheirhouse女人照镜子越多，家务做得越少wivesandchildrenarebillsofcharges.妻子和孩子是帐单2.9proverbsrelatedtotheEnglishwritingsystem2.10proverbsrelatedtothehistoryofEnglanditisashardtopleaseaknaveasaknight取悦坏蛋和骑士同样困难kings’chaffisworthothermen’scorn国一的糠胜似百姓的粮allstuartsarenotsibtotheking与国王同姓的不都是皇帝fromwhippingposttopillory鞭打之后又披枷2.11proverbsrelatedtothethriftfromsavingcomeshaving富裕来自节俭frugalityisanestatealone节俭本身就是财富thriftisgoodrevenue节俭就是好收入thriftisphilosopher’sstone节俭犹如点金石3.Allusions（asdefinedindictionaries,areimpliedorindirectreferences.Inmost,ifnotall,languagespeopleenrichtheirspeechorwritingwithindirectreferencestocharactersoreventsfromculture:literature,legends,history,religion,sports,etc.你真是个诸葛亮/她是个王熙凤式的人物。）3.1Allusionsfromliterature水浒传WaterMargin红楼梦DreamofRedMansions三国演义ThreeKingdom西游记PilgrimagetotheWestRemeo(ahandsomeyoungman,passionate,dashing,whohasawaywithwoman[fromShakespeare’sRemeoandJuliet])Cleopatra(awomanofbreathtakingbeauty(fromShakespeare’sAnthonyandCleopatra))AShylock(acruel,greedy,money-grabbingpersonwhowillgotonoendstogainwealth(fromShakespeare’sTheMerchantofVenice))Apoundofflesh()ADr.JekylandMr.Hyde(apersonwithatwo-sidedcharacter,onesidegoodandgentle,theothersideevilandruthless.(fromRobertLouisStevenson’snovelTheStrangeCaseofDr.JekylandMr.Hyde.))ASherlockHolmes(adetectiveorshrewdpersonwhohastheuncannyabilitytotrackdownanyquarryorsolveanymysterythroughcarefulobservations,scientificanalysis,andlogicalreasoning.(fromCharlesArthurConanDoyle’swell-knowndetectivesotries))AnOliverTwist(achildwhoroamsthestreets(fromCharlesDickens’novelOliverTwist))AnuncleTom(ameekpersonwhosubmitstoindignitiesandsufferingswithoutanythoughtoractofrebelling(fromHarrietBeecherStowe’snovelUncleTom’sCabin))ADonJuan(acaptivatingmanknownasagreatloverorseducerofwomen(fromTirsodeMolina’sELburladordeSevilla)ADonQuixote(anidealisticandimpracticalperson(fromMigueldeCsaavedra’sDonQuixote)ACinderella(apersonorthingsufferingfromundeservedneglect;orapersonorthingsuddenlyliftedfromobscuritytohonourorsignificance(fromHansChristianAndersen’sfairy-taleCinderella)3.2AllusionsfrommythologyaDamoclessword:forthcomingdangerordangerthatisalwayspresent,derivedfromaswordhungbyasinglehairoverDamocles,acourtierofancientSyracuse,whenhewasseatedatabanquetaPandora’sbox:aprolificsourceoftroubles,derivedfromtheboxsentbythegodstoPandora,whichshehasforbiddentoopenandwhichloosedaswarmofevilsuponmankindwhensheopeneditoutofcouriosityAtlanticOcean:Atlantics,amythicalislandinwhatisnowtheAtlanticOceanEurope:Europa,aprincesswhowasabductedandcarriedofftoCretebyabullthatwasactuallyZeus,kingofgodsinGreekmythology.Friday:Freya,goddessofmusicJanuary:Janus,aRomangodthatisidentifiedwithdoors,gatesandallbeginningsandthatisartisticallyrepresentedwithtwooppositefaces.Jupiter:thelargestoftheplanetsandfifthinorderfromthesun,derivedfromJupiter,thechiefRomangodMarch:Mars,theRomangodofwarMay:Maia,RomangoddessSaturday:Saturn,RomangodofagricultureUranium:aradioactiveelement,derivedfromUranus,thesky[personifiedasagodandfatherofTiansinGreekmythology.Venus:theplanetsecondinorderfromthesun,derivedfromVenus,theRomangoddessofloveandbeauty3.3Allusionsfromreligion3.4Allusionsfromhistory3.5Allusionsfromsports.TopicsforconsiderationChapter6.Similes,MetaphorsandAssociations1.similesandmetaphors1.1GeneralremarksonsimilesandmetaphorsTheyassociatetheiroldexperienceswithnewones,relateabstractideaswithconcreteimagesandconnectunfamiliarthingswithfamiliarones.Asimileisadirectcomparisonbetweentwoormoreunlikethings,normallyintroducedby“like”or“as”.Ametaphorisanimpliedcomparisonbetweentwoormoreunlikethings.Theyhavetwocomponents:tenor（传达过程）andvehicle(传达手段)1.2Somecross-culturalsimilaritiesanddifferencesinsimilesandmetaphorsSimilesandmetaphorsaredifferentinthatthefunctionwords“like”or“as”areusedinsimilesratherthaninmetaphors.Ontheotherhand,theyarequietsimilarinthattheyarebothconcernedwithanalogymaking.Theyreflectawayofthinking.Analogymakingasawayofthinkingisuniversal.fromacross-cultureperspectiveanalogiesmadeinEnglishandChinesemayfallintotwocategories:1.thesametenorsareassociatedwiththesamevehiclesinbothEnglishandChinese.2.thesametenorsarerelatedtodifferentvehiclesinEnglishandChinese.WhenthingsareperceivedtohavethesamequalitiesbybothEnglishandChinesespeakers,thesametenorsmaybeassociatedwiththesamevehiclesinbothEnglishandChinesetoexpresssimilarmeanings.WhenthesamequalitiesareassociatedwithdifferentthingsinEnglishandChinese,thesametenorsmayberelatedtodifferentvehiclestoexpresssimilarmeanings1.3Metaphorsisdailyconversations1.3.1MetaphoricalexpressionaboutideasWhataresaidleftabadtasterinmymouthAllthispaperhasinitarerawfacts,halfbakedideas,andwarmed-overtheories.TherearetoomanyfactshereformetodigestthemallIjustcan’tswallowthatclaimLetmestewoverthatforawhileNowthereisatheoryyoucanreallysinkyourteethintoThat’sfoodforthoughtWedon’tneedtospoon-feedourstudentsHedevouredthebookThisisthemeatypartofthepaper1.3.2Metaphoricalexpressionaboutlove1.3.3Metaphoricalexpressionaboutlife2.termsofcolour2.1Red:readisusuallyassociatedwithcelebrationsandjoyfuloccasionsbothinEnglishandChinese.theredcolourisnotalwaysassociatedwithsomethingjoyful.Inenglsih,theredlightdistrictreferstoadistrictwheretherearebrothels.RedisalsoassociatedwithcertainemotionsinbothenglsihandChinese.InChinese,Associatedwithembarrassmentorshyness.ButinEnglish,itisassociatedwithangerandexcitement.Redmeatsmeansbeefandmutton,Redsunderthebedmeansleft-wingactivists.2.2Whitewhiteconnotespurity,innocence.InEnglishexpressionwhitehasotherassociations.AwhiteChristmasrefertosnowatChristmastime.Awhite-collarjob.thewhiteisnotnecessarilyassociatedwithsomethinggood.Inawhiteelephant(无用的)t,thewhitefeatherandawhitenight（）2.3BlackinbothChineseandEnglish,blackisoftenassociatedwithnegativequalities.Suchasblacklist,blackmarket,blackhearted.Ablackday,ablackspot,ablacksheep,ablackmood,ablackcomedy,ablacklook.InsomeEnglishexpressionsblackhasneutralassociation.Inblackandwhite,meanssomethinginwritingorinprint.2.4Blue:inEnglish,blueisusuallyassociatedwithunhappyfeelings.Suchasinabluemood,orhavingtheblues.BlueMonday,andabluefit.Blueisalsooftenassociatedwithhighsocialpositionorbeingaristocratic.Forexample,blueblood.Bluemayalsohassomepleasantassociations.Ablueribbon指徽章，bluestocking指女学者。Theblue-collarjobs.2.5GreeninEnglish,greenisoftenassociatedwithjealousyandenvy.Greenwithenvy/green-eyedmonsters,andgreen-eyed.Itisalsooftenusedtoindicatelackingexperience,trainingorknowledge.Agreenhorn生手。Isoftenassociatedwithfruitandvegetablesorgardening.Greengrocer.Itisalsothesymbolofvigourandenergy.Agreenoldage.BothgreenlightinEnglishand“绿灯”inChineseareassociatedwithauthoritativepermissiontogoaheadwithsomeproject.Apparently,theyarederivedfromtrafficregulations.2.6YellowinChinese,hasmanypejorativeexpressions.Yellowdoesappearinyellowjournalismandyellowpages.2.7Grey,pinkandpurpleinEnglish,greyisoftenusedmetaphoricallytomeangloomyordismal.Agreyday.Withsomethingunpleasant,ismilderthanblack.Pinkcanbeassociatedwithsomethingbest.Purpleisoftenassociatedwithhighrankorstationingeneralorimperialorregalrankorpowerinparticular.Thepurplereferstoroyalorverynoblerank.Apurplepassage/apurplepatch2.8RemarksontranslatingtermsofcolourfromorintoEnglishredalert空袭紧急警报。redblooded精力充沛的redhanded现行犯的redhunter迫害共产主义者的人blackbeetle蟑螂blackbrowed愁眉苦脸的blacktea红茶whitealert解除空袭警报whiteroom绝尘室whitesmith银匠，锡匠greenline（军）轰炸线，敌我分界线greenroom演员休息室bluealert（预备警报后的）空袭警报bluejacket水兵，水手bluewater大海brownbread黑面包brownsugar红糖brownpaper牛皮纸pinkelephants幻觉（吸毒后）pinktea午后茶会pinkeye火眼purplemedic苜蓿greycloth本色布greymare比丈夫强的妻子，雌老虎yellowdog杂种狗红白事weddingsandfunerals.红尘theworldofmortals,humansociety红光满面one’sfaceisglowingwithhealth红利bonus红人afavouritewithsomebodyinpower黄道吉日aluckyday黄泉netherworld黄牛ox,cattle白菜chinesecabbage白痴idiot白费invain白金platinum白卷blankexaminationpaper白面flour白薯sweetpotato白蚁termite白银silver白昼daytime黑暗dark黑管clarinet黑话argot黑货smuggledgoods黑信poison-penletters.绿宝石emerald绿洲oasisTopicsforconsiderationChapter7.Honourifics,TermsofHumility,EuphemismsandTaboos1.Honourifics(itisthathonourificsarelanguageformsusedinspeechestoshowrespecttoasuperior.)InChinese:itishardtosayforsurewhytherearesomanyhonourificsinChinese.suchas,您，陛下，令堂，令尊。ButinEnglishculturefamiliarityishighlyvalued.Chineselearnershaveto“forget”or“ignore”.Therearehonourificsinenglish,too,forexample,majesty,honourableandexcellency.Englishhonourificsarenotfrequentlyusedindailyspeechesandconversations.ChinesehonourificsoftendonothaveequivalentsinEnglish.您，您老you先生/女士：you局长、经理、老师等youorthepersons’names爷爷、奶奶、伯父、伯母等you哥哥，姐姐you令尊，令堂，二老yourfather,yourmother,yourparents.令郎、令爱等yourson,yourdaughter,etc贵姓，尊姓大名yourname贵庚yourage贵国，贵校，贵厂，贵府等。Yourcountry,yourschool,yourfactory,yourhome,etc.惠函yourletter久仰大名，久仰I’veheardalotaboutyou.Yournameiswell-knownheretous…欢迎光临welcome,welcometo…欢迎指导welcome,welcometo…你有何高见what’syouropinion?I’dliketohaveyouropinion您有何贵干whatbringyouhere?I’dliketoknowwhyyou’rehere?请提宝贵意见:pleasegiveusyourcommentsorsuggestions.Couldyougiveusyourcommentsorsuggestions?请赐教pleasebesokindastogivemesomeadviceorsuggestions拜托requestsomebodytodosomething;“wouldyoubesokindastodo…?”拜谢expressone’sgratitude拜访payavisit拜辞takeleaveof拜年payaNewYearcall拜读了大作I’vereadyourpaper(article,report,work,book,etc)敬请指正I’dliketohaveyourcommentsonmylook(work,etc).(itisoftennothingbutapoliteremarkwhenshowingorgivingone;sownpublicationsorworkasagift.)敬请光临：you’reinvitedtocometo1.TermsofHumilityItisusedtoshowthespeaker’smodesty.TosoundmodestandhumblewasvitaltotheancientChinesepeople,especiallywhentheycommunicatedwiththosewhowereolder,higherinsocioeconomicposition,ormoreprivilegedinaspecificarea.Incontrast,therearefewtermsofhumilityinEnglish.IfyouwanttolearnEnglishwell,forgetthem.敝人I,me内人，老婆mywife小儿，儿家那小子myson小女，我那个丫头mydaughter寒舍，舍下myhome敝校，敝厂，敝所等this(our)school,factory,institution,etc便饭dinner拙作mybook(painting,literarywork,thesis,etc.)献丑(itisnormallynothingmorethanapoliteremarkgivenbeforeone;sperformanceofakind)2.EuphemismsEuphemismsarepleasant,politeorharmlesssoundingwordsorexpressionsusedtomaskharsh,rudeorinfamoustruths.Gohe’sgoneDeparttodepartfromthislife;departfromthisworldforeverDeceasetodecease;thedeceased(allusedinlegalorformalcontexts.)PerishtoperishinwarFalltofallinbattlePassawaythepatientpassedawayduringthenightBreatheone’slasthebreathedhislastandwasburiedinthechurchyardSleeptosleepinthegravesEndwineendedhimExpireheexpiredearlyInthemorningGothewayofallflesh(dieasothermendo)ThegreatestartistofthefirsthalfofthiscenturyhaslonglastgonethewayofallfleshGosweet(fromthesunsinkinginthewest)it’salongtimesincehewentwestGotoabetterworldBeinheavenBewithGodPayone’sdebttonaturePaythedebtofnature.ManyEnglisheuphemismsareusedtorefertothedisadvantagedintheUnitedStates.Theblackpeople,usedNegros.Ethnicneighborhood,backwardcountries,elderlypeople,plainlooking,heavy,slender,physicallyhandicapped,hardofhearing.Agroupofeuphemismsarerelatedtowork.TherearemanyeuphemismsinEnglishforlavatory.Washroom,bathroom,restroom,comfortstation,powderroom,ladies’gents’,men’s,wc,toilet.Euphemismsarealsofrequentlyusedineducation.Andusedinmassmediaaboutpolitical,socioeconomicaffairsandinternationalrelationstoavoidtheunpleasantnessofsometermsorexpress.Industrialaction1.TaboosAnythingwhichisprohibitedbyreligion,traditionofsocialusageisataboo.InbothEnglishandChinese,theactsofhumanexcretionaretobeavoidedinpoliteconversations.Certainpartofthebodyandsexualintercoursearetaboosinbothtwocountries.especiallytoChinese.Swearwords,profaneorobsceneoathsorwords,aretabooinbothtwocountries.InEnglish:anythingrelatedtoprivacyorconsideredpersonalaretaboo.Forexample,age,income,political,religiousbeliefs,etc.anydirectquestionabouttheageofastrangerorapersononedoesnotknowwellisimproper.Anythingthatmyremindanoldpersonofhis/heragemightbeoffensive.Personincomeisalsotaboo.Questionsabouttheirloveandmarriageshouldbeavoided.Itisalsoimpropertoaskdirectlyotherpeople’sreligiousbeliefs.Racismistoo.Thecalmesthusbandsmakethestormiestwives丈夫懦弱妻子凶Themother-in-lawremembersnotthatshewasadaughter-in-law作了婆婆忘了作媳妇的苦妖evilspirits,alluring.媚flattering奸wicked,treacherous婪greedy嫉妒jealous,envious姘tohaveillicitsexualrelationswith嫖tovisitprostitutes婊prostituteTopicsforconsiderationChapter8.CultureinTexts1.introductiontosomefundamentalconceptsofthetextitreferstoanypieceofspokenorwrittenlanguage,whichexpressesacompletemeaning.Inanormaltextthesentencesareconnectedinonewayoranother.Notanycollectionofsentencescanbecomeatext.Onlythosecollectionsofsentencesthatconsistofsentencesconnectedincertainwayscanberegardedastexts.Agroupofsentencesthatarejuxtaposedinarandomfashioncanneverbetreatedasatext.Weshallnotgointodetailsofcohesionandcoherence.However,weshouldrememberthatthesentencesinatextareconnectedeitherbygrammaticaland/orlexicalmeansorbymeaningalone.Theyarenotjustarandomcollectionofunrelatedsentences.Anormaltextalsohasstructureswhichrefertothewaysinwhichthepartsofatextareorganizedandrelatedtooneanothertoformameaningfulwhole.Wecanfindcross-culturedifferenceintexts.2.TextualconnectivesInanormaltextsentencesareconnectedeitherhypotacticallyorparatactically.Andparatacticrelationsrefertoconstructionswhicharelinkedthroughjuxtapositionandpunctuation/intonationandnotthroughtheuseofconjunction.Thenotionofhypotacticandparatacticrelationscanalsobeappliedtothestudyoftheconnectionbetweensentencesintexts.Iftwoormoresentencesinatextarelinkedbytextualconnectives,theyarehypotacticallyrelated.Itisimportanttonotethattextualconnectivesincludenotonlyconjunctions(and,or,but,etc)butalsowordsofotherwordclassesorevenphrases.(however,furthmore,next,secondly,forexample,asamatteroffact.)thatfunctionaslinkagesbetweensentencesinatext.Textualconnectivesexplicitlyrepresentthelogicalrelationsbetweensentences.AlthoughhypotacticandparatacticrelationscanbefoundineitherEnglishofChineseisaparatacticone.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatatethesententiallevelhypotacticrelationsareobservedfarmorefrenque