gender, employment, and migration - world bank internet error 性别，就业，和移民的世界银行网络错误

Gender, Employment, and MigrationJoyce P. JacobsenWesleyan University9 December 2005Rabat, MoroccoTopicsn Statistical comparisonsn Extensions to standard analysisn Research wish listStatistical comparisonsn How do Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia fare relative to other countries (MENA and other regions) on a variety of standard gender-disaggregated measures?n What other measures can we calculate?n What other gender-disaggregated data would we like to see these countries collect?Standard labor market benchmarks of gender equalityn labor force participation ratesn employment and unemployment ratesn hours workedn earnings ratesn occupational and industrial distribution and segregation indexesFemale/male LFP rates and ratiosFemale rateMale rateFemale/ male ratioMorocco 43.6% 82.4% 0.53Tunisia 39.5% 82.6% 0.48Algeria 31.2% 79.4% 0.39Unemployment rates and ratiosOverall rate Female/male rate ratioAlgeria 29.8% 0.88Morocco 17.7% 1.00Tunisia 15.4% 0.94Occupational segregation indexesn Algeria 55, Morocco 18, Tunisia 11n Compare to range of 23 to 45 for industrialized countriesn Big move out of agriculture, into services, in all three countries for both women and menStandard social development benchmarks for gender equalityn maternal mortality ratesn fertility ratesn infant and child mortality ratesn life expectancy (standard and health-adjusted)n illiteracy ratesn schooling ratesMaternal mortality rates have dropped, but still highn Tunisia 120, Algeria 140, Morocco 220n compare to Spain 5, U.S. 14, France 17Fertility rates have dropped sharply1980 2004Algeria 6.7 2.5Morocco 5.4 2.8Tunisia 5.2 2.0Infant mortality rates have dropped, but still highn Tunisia 24 , Morocco 38, Algeria 42n compare to France 4.5, Spain 4.5, U.S. 7Infant mortality rates have a gender gapMales FemalesMorocco (1992) 68.6 57.4Tunisia (1988) 56.3 54.7France (2001) 5.4 4.1Under-five mortality rates have a gender gapMales FemalesTunisia 27 21Morocco 40 38Algeria 45 36Life expectancy rising, gender gap wideningFemale 1982Male 1982Female 2003Male 2003Tunisia 64 61 74 70Algeria 60 58 72 69Morocco 60 56 73 69But healthy life expectancy calculation narrows gender gapFemale Male GapTunisia 63.6 61.3 2.3Algeria 61.6 59.7 1.9Morocco 60.9 59.5 1.4Illiteracy rates have dropped but still high, and show gender gapFemale MaleTunisia 36.9 16.9Algeria 40.4 22.0Morocco 61.7 36.7Female/male school enrollment ratios have narrowedPrimary Secondary TertiaryTunisia 0.96 1.05 0.97Algeria 0.92 1.08 0.70Morocco 0.87 0.80 0.80Also:n Ratio of military expenditure to combined public expenditure on education and health, 1986:Algeria 23%, Morocco 86%, Tunisia 82%Compare toLAC 29%, Sub-Saharan Africa 70%, South Asia 164%, MENA 166%low-income countries in general: 116%And:n Armed forces as a percentage of teachers, 1986:Algeria 71%, Morocco 102%, Tunisia 55%Compare toLAC 42%, South Asia 47%,Sub-Saharan Africa 90%, MENA 183%low-income countries in general: 60%Indexes of Developmentn HDIn GDI (gender-disaggregated HDI)n GEM (gender empowerment measure)n FEM (female endangerment measure)IndicesHDI rank(out of 177)GDI rank(out of 144)GEM rank(out of 94)Algeria 107 88 74Morocco 126 102 72Tunisia 91 76 78FEM rank(out of 17 MENA countries)n proposed by the Economic Research Forum for the Arab Countries, Iran, and Turkey (ERF)n FEM equally weights female illiteracy, fertility, and maternal mortality ratesn Tunisia 6th, Algeria 9th, Morocco 13thn compare to GEM rank:Tunisia 1st, Morocco 4th, Algeria 9thPunch lines:n Investment in health and education pays off, as measured in development indexes directly, and indirectly through higher formal labor market participation for womenn Increased education, decreased infant, child, and maternal mortality, decreased fertility, increased adult health all link to increased womens labor force participationn Closing the remaining gender gap in primary education would be low-costn In Morocco, 0.4% of GNPn In Tunisia, 0.2% of GNPn In Algeria, probably between these two figures based on enrollment numbersClosing the remaining education gender gap is doableWhat about migration?n All three countries are labor exporters:net migration ratios (per 1000 population)Algeria -.37 (ranked 153 of 225 countries)Tunisia -.54 (rank 160)Morocco -.92 (rank 169)n Morocco and Tunisia generate large remittance streamsWhat about migration? (contd.)n Brain drain substantial: most migrants to OECD from Morocco (65%) and Tunisia (64%) have tertiary education; migration rates for tertiary educated are over six times as high as for secondary educatedBut: On all these points, gender dimension is not clearWorldwide, migrants are 49% femaleCaveats and additions to WB MENA Reportn The paradox of occupational gender segregation n Taking gender seriously means also thinking about how ways in which men and boys may be disadvantagedn How to handle demilitarization?n Transnational migrant flows a mixed dealResearch wish listn time use datan regular, ongoing household surveysn an ongoing panel survey n better migration datan all statistics gender-disaggregatedn include (even oversample) minority groups and gender-disaggregaten disaggregate by location as wellExemplary commitments to gender-disaggregated datan Statis