《八级备考语言学》word版.doc

Chapter 1 IntroductionLinguistics，Core of linguistics, Important distinctions, Language, Design features of language, Functions of languageLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of social science.It includes general (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics. General linguisticsthe study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.Applied Linguistics:In a narrow sense, it refers to the aapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, esp. the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the fact that findings in linguistic studies are applied to the practical problems. For example, lexicology, translation, speech pathology, recovery of speech ability; sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, biolinguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, information theory, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etcMain branches of linguistics: Phonetics 语音学, Phonology 音位学, Morphology 形态学, Syntax 句法学, Semantics 语义学, Pragmatics 语用学 Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 规定性和描写性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共时和历时 The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration. Speech and writing: 口语和书面语 The two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write; 2. Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds. Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have: 1. Messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other; 2. Messages can be carried though time so that we can read the books in the past;3. Oral messages are readily subject to distortion while writing messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century.Langue and parole:语言和言语 F. de Saussure (Swiss linguist) refers langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue: the set of conventions and rules language users have to abide by, abstract, relatively stable.Parole: the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, concrete, variable.Saussure: a linguist should abstract langue from parole (to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language).Competence and performance:语言能力和语言应用 According to N. Chomsky (American linguist), competence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the act realization of his knowledge in linguistic petence: stable; performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the competence instead of performance. Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view competence=a property of the mind of each individual Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal framework LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.Design Features (识别特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell. Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 双层性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底层结构The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上层结构Productivity/creativity:能产性、创造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality; and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受时空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of communication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Cultural transmission: 文化传递性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned.Interchangeability：互换性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the users feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. Speech Elements and Function Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresser-emotive 感情功能addressee-conative 意动功能context-referential 指称功能message -poetic 诗意性功能contact -phatic communion 应酬功能code -metalinguistic 元语功能addresser-emotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. e.g. I hate what they are planning for me.addressee-conative 意动功能 The addresser aims to influence the addressees course of action or ways of thinking. e.g. Why not go and see another doctor?context-referential 指称功能 The addresser conveys a message or information. e.g. As far as I know, the earths resources are being astonishingly wasted.message-poetic 诗意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. e.g. poetrycontact -phatic communion 应酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. e.g. Good morning. / 吃饭了吗？God bless you. Nice day. code -metalinguistic 元语功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. e.g. Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. It studies how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. 3 branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics.Articulatory: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. This branch has the longest history and is the focus of this chapter.Auditory: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Organs of Speech: The pharyngeal cavity the throat 咽腔 the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the vocal cords (vibration of whichvoicing, voiceless)The oral cavity the mouth 口腔 the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lipsThe nasal cavity the nose 鼻腔 Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords when speech sounds are articulated. The sounds are voiced.Voiceless: the lack of vibration of the vocal cords when the sounds are produced. The sounds are voiceless.The first version of International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) came into being in August 1888, which was revised recently in 1993, and updated in 1997. IPAs basic principle: one letter from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式/严式标音Diacritics(附加符号): another set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only; Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever.If the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel; otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation: stops: p b, t d, k gfricatives: f v s z haffricatives: t d liquids: l rnasals: m n glides: w j In terms of place of articularionbilabial: p b m w labiodental: f vdental: alveolar: t d s z n l rpalatal: t d j velar: k g glottal: hVowels: monophthongs, diphthongsMonophthongs are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth; the openness of the mouth; the shape of the lips; the length of the vowels.i: i e a : u: u : a:Diphthongs: ei ai i e u au uPhonology and phoneticsSsimilarity: the study of soundsDdifference: different approaches and focusesPhonetics: all the speech sounds used in all human languages; 语音研究的方法 s, i, tPhonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication; 语音使用的模式(发现语言中语音的组成规则并解释发生的变化). s i t怎样组合Phone, Phoneme, AllophonePhone: a phonetic unit or segment. 音素The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. Some do, some dont.Phoneme: a phonological unit of distinctive value .音位 An abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. e.g. /l/Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. e.g. Phone t-Phoneme /t/The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. 音位变体. Phonological Analysis 音位分析Principle: Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not.Minimal pairs(最小对立体): When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, they form a minimal pair. For example: tin din, bi:t bitAll these sound combinations together constitute a minima set. 最小对立集This also applies to the vowels. Minimal pair test is used to find the important sounds in language. It leads to the identifications of over 40 important units in English, which are called phonemes(音位).Phonetically similar sounds related in two ways: pphonemic contrast and ccomplementary distribution pphonemic contrast: two distinctive phonemes. 音位对立 /p/-/b/, /t/-/d/ccomplementary distribution: the allophones of the same phoneme which do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. (音位变体的)互补分布 spit-pit, little, Free variants (音位的)自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound causing by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. either i:, aiRules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are combined.Sequential rules (序列规则): the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. e.g. spring, book, snake, .Assimilation rule(同化规则): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. e.g. incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略规则): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. sign-signature Suprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemes-the sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Word-formation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形态学,词法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(语素/词素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. box+es, desire+ableIn view of word-formation, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.Syntactically, it is the minimal form of grammatical analysis. e.g. studies, studying, studied (study+, -es, -ing, -ed)Morphemes are abstract units, realized by discrete units known as morphs.Morph (语素形式/形素): The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are morphs.The morph to a morpheme what a phone is to a phoneme.Most morphemes are realized by one morph like bird, cat, tree, sad, want, etc. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph in relation to their phonological context in a word. e.g. The morpheme of plurality s: cats, bags, matches / The past tense of the morpheme be : was, were Allomorph(语素变体): alternate shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme . An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs. Morpheme wouldmorph morph morph morph allomorph /wud/ /wd/ /d/ /d/Types of morphemes: free vs. bound, derivational vs. inflectionalFree morpheme(自由语素): a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree”, “dog”, They can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with words. They are all roots.Bound morpheme(粘着语素): a morpheme that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-er” in “teacher”.They are mainly found in derived words. They consist of both roots and affixes. Derivational morphemes(派生语素): those morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach. e.g. ccomputerize, multimedia In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折语素): For the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case,word (part of speech unchanged) e.g. He was reading a letter then.In English, most inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morphology and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root can be free or bound. All free morphemes are free roots such man, earth, . A bound root is a form that cannot stand alone but has to combine with other morp