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understanding the linux operating system,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:2,process memory io network,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:3,schematic interaction of different performance components,linux process management,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:5,timeslice: 30ms 10ms cell, page frame,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:6,what is a process?,a process is an instance of execution that runs on a processor from the kernels point of view, the purpose of a process is to act as an entity to which system resources (cpu time, memory, etc.) are allocated they include a set of resources such as open files and pending signals, internal kernel data, processor state, a memory address space with one or more memory mappings, one or more threads of execution, and a data section containing global variables,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:7,process descriptor and the task structure,to manage processes, the kernel must have a clear picture of what each process is doing the kernel stores the list of processes in a circular doubly linked list called the task list all processes running on linux operating system are managed by the task_struct structure, which is also called a process descriptor the task_struct is a relatively large data structure, at around 1.7 kilobytes on a 32-bit machine,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:8,the process descriptor and task list,链表,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:9,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:10,the linux process descriptor,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:11,process state,task_running the process is either executing on a cpu or waiting to be executed task_interruptible the process is suspended (sleeping) until some condition becomes true. raising a hardware interrupt, releasing a system resource the process is waiting for, or delivering a signal are examples of conditions that might wake up the process (put its state back to task_running) a typical example of a task_interruptible process is a process waiting for keyboard interrupt,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:12,task_uninterruptible like task_interruptible, except that delivering a signal to the sleeping process leaves its state unchanged a typical example of a task_uninterruptible process is a process waiting for disk i/o operation task_stopped process execution has been stopped; the process enters this state after receiving a sigstop, sigtstp, sigttin, or sigttou signal,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:13,task_traced process execution has been stopped by a debugger when a process is being monitored by another (such as when a debugger executes a ptrace( ) system call to monitor a test program), each signal may put the process in the task_traced state task_zombie process execution is terminated, but the parent process has not yet issued a wait4( ) or waitpid( ) system call to return information about the dead process,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:14,process state,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:15,life cycle of a process,every process has its own life cycle such as creation, execution, termination, and removal,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:16,when a process creates a new process, the creating process (parent process) issues a fork() system call when a fork() system call is issued, it gets a process descriptor for the newly created process (child process) and sets a new process id it copies the values of the parent process process descriptor to the childschilds. at this time the entire address space of the parent process is not copied; both processes share the same address space,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:17,the exec() system call copies the new program to the address space of the child process because both processes share the same address space, writing new program data causes a page fault exception at this point, the kernel assigns the new physical page to the child process this deferred operation is called the copy on write,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:18,cow: copy on writing写时复制,fork,slab,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:19,when program execution has completed, the child process terminates with an exit() system call the exit() system call releases most of the data structure of the process and notifies the parent process of the termination sending a signal at this time, the process is called a zombie process,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:20,the child process will not be completely removed until the parent process knows of the termination of its child process by the wait() system call as soon as the parent process is notified of the child process termination, it removes all the data structure of the child process and release the process descriptor,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:21,thread,a thread is an execution unit generated in a single process it runs parallel with other threads in the same process they can share the same resources such as memory, address space, open files, and so on they can access the same set of application data a thread is also called light weight process (lwp) because they share resources, each thread should not change their shared resources at the same time the implementation of mutual exclusion, locking, serialization, and so on, are the user applications responsibility,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:22,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:23,from the performance perspective, thread creation is less expensive than process creation because a thread does not need to copy resources on creation,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:24,in current linux implementations, a thread is supported with the portable operating system interface for unix (posix) compliant library (pthread) several thread implementations are available in the linux operating system: linux threads native posix thread library (nptl) next generation posix thread (ngpt) using the ld_assume_kernel environment variable, you can choose which threads library the application should use,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:25,缓存抖动,a,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:26,context switching,to control the execution of processes, the kernel must be able to suspend the execution of the process running on the cpu and resume the execution of some other process previously suspended this activity goes variously by the names process switch, task switch, or context switch while each process can have its own address space, all processes have to share the cpu registers so before resuming the execution of a process, the kernel must ensure that each such register is loaded with the value it had when the process was suspended the process descriptor and the area called kernel mode stack are used to store the context,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:27,context switching,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:28,process memory segments,a process uses its own memory area to perform work the work varies depending on the situation and process usage a process can have different workload characteristics and different data size requirements the process has to handle a of variety of data sizes to satisfy this requirement, the linux kernel uses a dynamic memory allocation mechanism for each process,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:29,32bit,4g,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:30,process address space,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:31,classes of processes,interactive processes these interact constantly with their users, and therefore spend a lot of time waiting for keypresses and mouse operations batch processes these do not need user interaction, and hence they often run in the background real-time processes these have very strong scheduling requirements such processes should never be blocked by lower-priority processes, they should have a short response time and, most important, such response time should have a minimum variance typical real-time programs are video and sound applications, robot controllers, and programs that collect data from physical sensors,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:32,process scheduling,multitasking multitasking operating systems come in two flavors: cooperative multitasking and preemptive multitasking linux, like all unix variants and most modern operating systems, implements preemptive multitasking in preemptive multitasking, the scheduler, one of the kernel subsystem, decides when a process is to cease running and a new process is to begin running the act of involuntarily suspending a running process is called preemption,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:33,o(1) o(log n) o(n) o(n2) o(2n),2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:34,linuxs process scheduler,o(1) scheduler it scales well with the number of runnable processes, because it selects the process to run in constant time, independently of the number of runnable processes it also scales well with the number of processors because each cpu has its own queue of runnable processes the new algorithm does a better job of distinguishing interactive processes and batch processes but, o(1) scheduler had several pathological failures related to scheduling latency-sensitive applications thus, although the o(1) scheduler was ideal for large server workloadswhich lack interactive processesit performed below par on desktop systems, where interactive applications are the raison dtre,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:35,linux kernel 2.6 o(1) scheduler,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:36,linux scheduling is based on the time sharing technique several processes run in “time multiplexing“ because the cpu time is divided into slices, one for each runnable process time sharing relies on timer interrupts and is thus transparent to processes the scheduling policy is also based on ranking processes according to their priority,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:37,process preemption,if a process enters the task_running state, the kernel checks whether its dynamic priority is greater than the priority of the currently running process if it is, the execution of current is interrupted and the scheduler is invoked to select another process to run a process may also be preempted when its time quantum expires when this occurs, the need_resched field of the current process is set, so the scheduler is invoked when the timer interrupt handler terminates,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:38,preempting the current process,standard preemption rules cpu receives a hard interrupt process requests io process voluntarily surrenders the cpu via sched_yield scheduler algorithm determines that process should be preempted viewing scheduler policy and priority chrt -p pid ps axo pid,comm,rtprio,policy top the init process starts with sched_ohter each process inherits parents scheduling policy and priority at creatation time,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:39,scheduling policy,policy is the behavior of the scheduler that determines what runs when a schedulers policy often determines the overall feel of a system and is responsible for optimally utilizing processor time the scheduling algorithm of traditional unix operating systems must fulfill several conflicting objectives: fast process response time good throughput for background jobs avoidance of process starvation reconciliation of the needs of low high-priority processes and so on the set of rules used to determine when and how to select a new process to run is called scheduling policy,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:40,characterizing processes,when speaking about scheduling, processes are traditionally classified as i/o-bound or cpu-bound the former is characterized as a process that spends much of its time submitting and waiting on i/o requests conversely, processor-bound processes spend much of their time executing code a scheduler policy for processor-bound processes tends to run such processes less frequently but for longer durations linux, aiming to provide good interactive response and desktop performance, optimizes for process response (low latency), thus favoring i/o-bound processes over processor-bound processors,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:41,process priority,in linux, process priority is dynamic the scheduler keeps track of what processes are doing and adjusts their priorities periodically processes that have been denied the use of a cpu for a long time interval are boosted by dynamically increasing their priority processes running for a long time are penalized by decreasing their priority,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:42,static priority,every conventional process has its own static priority, which is a value used by the scheduler to rate the process with respect to the other conventional processes in the system the kernel represents the static priority of a conventional process with a number ranging from 100 (highest priority) to 139 (lowest priority) new process always inherits the static priority of its parent however, a user can change the static priority of the processes that he owns by passing some “nice values“,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:43,real-time priority,0-99 higher real-time priority values correspond to a greater priority all real-time processes are at a higher priority than normal processes; that is, the real-time priority and nice value are in disjoint value spaces ps -eo state,uid,pid,ppid,rtprio,time,comm,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:44,timeslice,the timeslice is the numeric value that represents how long a task can run until it is preempted the scheduler policy must dictate a default timeslice, which is not a trivial exercise,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:45,the scheduling algorithm,scheduler classes the linux scheduler is modular, enabling different algorithms to schedule different types of processes this modularity is called scheduler classes scheduler classes enable different, pluggable algorithms to coexist, scheduling their own types of processes each scheduler class has a priority. the highest priority scheduler class that has a runnable process wins, selecting who runs next,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:46,scheduling classes,every linux process is always scheduled according to one of the following scheduling classes : sched_fifo 1-99 a first-in, first-out real-time process sched_rr a round robin real-time process sched_normal (100-139) a conventional, time-shared process also named by sched_other for normal processes,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:47,sched_other,priority may vary processes with equal priority can preempt current process every 20ms to prevent cpu starvation cpu bound processes receive a +5 priority penalty after preemption interactive tasks spend time waiting for io scheduler tracks time spent waiting for io for each process and calculates a sleep average high sleep average indicates interactive process interactive processes may be re-inserted into the active queue if not, receive a -5 priority boost and move to expired queue,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:48,tuning scheduler policy,sched_fifo chrt -f 1-99 /path/to/program arguments sched_rr chrt -r 1-99 /path/to/program arguments sched_other nice renice,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:49,viewing cpu performance data,load average: average length of run queues considers only tasks in task_runnable and task_uninterruptable sar -q top w uptime vmstat 1 5 cpu utilization mpstat 1 2 sar -p all 1 2 iostat -c 1 2 /proc/stat,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:50,equalizing cpu visit count,process moves to the expired queue when preempted imposes a built-in affinity for the cpu can lead to unbalanced run queues scheduler rebalances run queues every 100ms if all processors are busy every 1ms if a cpu is idle view a specific process watch -n.5 ps axo comm,pid,psr| grep program_name consequences lower visit count leads to higher throughput moving a task to another cpu guarantees a cache miss,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:51,tuning process affinity with taskset,use the taskset command to pin a task to a cpu taskset opts mask|list pid|command arg. # taskset -c -p cpulist pid mask 0x00000001 cpu #0 0x00000002 cpu #1 0x00000003 cpu #0 and cpu #1 consequences improve cache hits(lower service time) for applications with unit cache stride unbalanced run queues can cause log wait times for numa, avoid non-local memory accesses,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:52,tuning run queue length with taskset,restrict length of a cpu run queue isolate a cpu from automatic scheduling in /etc/grub.conf isolcpus=cpu number,cpu number pin tasks to that cpu with taskset consider moving irqs off the cpu,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:53,scheduler domains,group processors into cpusets each cpuset represents a scheduler domain supports both multi-core and numa architectures simple management interface through the cpuset virtual file system the root cpuset contains all system resources child cpsets each cpuset must contain at least one cpu and one memory zone child cpusets can be nested dynamically attach tasks to a cpuset consequences control latency due to queue length, cache, and numa zones assign processes with different cpu characteristics to different cpusets scalable for complex performance scenarios,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:54,configuring the root cpuset,create a mount point at /cpusets add an entry to /etc/fstab cpuset /cpusets cpuset defaults 0 0 mount the filesystem to automatically create the cpuset /cpusets/cpus /cpusets/mems /cpusets/tasks all cpus and memory zones belong to the root cpuset all existing pids are assigned to the root cpuset,2019/2/5,linux performance and tuning,page:55,configuring a chi
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