参考范文(讨论稿).doc

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参考范文(讨论稿) The Enlightenment and Its Heritage to American Culture(times new Roman 三号)Introduction(times new Roman 小三号)In the long history of human civilization, it is really a miracle that America, a fairly young nation, has evolved from a colony of Britain to a superpower today in merely more than two hundred years. Large quantities of immigrants are drawn to America every year in hope of realizing their “American dream”, among the essence of which are the familiar values such as liberty, democracy and justice, etc. Meanwhile, the spirit of American culture spread all over the world are exerting great influence on the established culture and customs of other nations, which is well justified by the term “Americanization”. To understand why American culture has become so influential in the current times, it is important to go back in time to explore its roots. The Enlightenment in the 18th century with its flourishing natural science and brilliant new ideas about human rights may shed some light on the question. (times new Roman 小四 号)1 The Age of Reason(times new Roman 小三号)11Political and Economic Background(times new Roman 四号)Although the intellectual movement called “The Enlightenment” is usually associated with the 18th century, its source in fact can be traced much further. Europe of the 17th century was dominated by dogma and fanaticism. Working hand in hand, both church and state repressed any voices against clericalism or feudal privilege. Slavery was widely practiced, especially in the colonial plantations of the western hemisphere, and its cruelties were frequently defended by leading religious figures. The despotism of monarchs exercising great powers than any medieval king was supported by the doctrine of the “divine right of kings,” and scripture quoted to show that revolution was detested by God. As witch-hunts prevailed in society and organizations trying to challenge the twin authorities of church and state were banned, the conflict between rulers and people sharpened. Religious oppression being the mainstream, trade and commerce still gained development. With the wealth brought back from Asia and the Americas, a new class of merchants gradually rose into prominence in the 18th century, as were later called the bourgeois class. Great fortunes were madein every town and the wave of prosperity brought a greater degree of self-confidence to them. They became increasingly powerful in politics as well as in economy. These merchants had their own ideas about the life they desired and the world in which they wanted to live. They believed that their earnings were the fruits of their own hard work, unlike the inherited wealth of the aristocracy. They were also aware that the aristocracy living on their paid taxes while contributing nothing of value to society was reluctant to share any power with them, the real creator of national wealth. They were dissatisfied with the feudal lords and longed for more power from the King so that they could have free development.1.2 Intellectual SettingAt the same time, natural science made accelerated progress in the late 17th and the 18th century. It rendered an ideological weapon to the vanguards of the Enlightenment. Many philosophers were trying to seek truth and reason from the newly-emerging natural science. Rene Descartes, famous for his analytical geometry, believed that the only way to know the world and acquire knowledge is mathematical reasoning; Bacon proposed an induction method from particular to general and from specific to abstract; Newtons discovery of cosmic law and gravitation supported the Copernican system and opened enormous new fields in astronomy and physics. Besides, notable achievements were scored in botany, geography and medicine, which made more and more people convinced of humans ability to conquer the nature and of the perfectibility and progress of human society. Greatly influenced by Newtons cosmic law applicable to the minutest object as well as to the universe as a whole, the philosophers had much faith in the idea that there exist not only natural laws regulating physical world but also natural laws governing human society. In France of the 18th century, the reading public came into existence because of increasing literacy and people began to rid themselves of the bans placed by church and state, question the inequality of society, express their ideas through every possible channel, and learn to analyze problems by reason. This is the background of the 18th Europe. Europeans were changing, but Europes institutions were not keeping pace with that change. Eventually, the impulse of natural science alchemized into the Enlightenment. This is one of those rare historical movements which in effect named itself. Certain thinkers and writers, primarily in London and Paris, believed that they were more enlightened than their compatriots and set out to enlighten them.1.3The Essence of the Enlightenment and the PhilosophesOriginating in the 17th century Britain, the Enlightenment was primarily a French movement because at that time French culture dominated Europe and because its core values were put forth in the environment of Parisian salons. Although its backbone was the middle class, its main purpose was for man in general, for humanity. It was after the Peace of Utrecht (1713) that the Enlightenment was in a large degree a French phenomenon. Its leading proponents were known as the philosophes, a term which cannot be literally interpreted as “philosophers”. The philosophes were mostly writers and intellectuals who saw through social maladies and sought reforms under the guidance of the principles of reason. Therefore, the Enlightenment had another name “the Age of Reason” (called by Thomas Paine). By reason it signified mans thought and judgment and by reason great emphasis was attached to the notion that everything should be judged by sense, rather than by the will of God, to secure the natural rights of humans.With its appeal to rationalism and perfectibility and progress, the Enlightenment was labeled as the second mind-emancipating movement led by European bourgeoisie against despotism, clericalism and feudal privilege. The word “enlightenment” means bright and wisdom in French. The philosophes called for the sunlight of reason to dispel the darkness of reality and to usher in democracy, freedom and equality. They turned rationalism to a banner of anti-feudalism. The main figures of the Enlightenment are fairly well known: Descartes, Issac Newton, Pascal, Bayle, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Hobbes and Locke. Among them, Hobbes and Locke are the earliest philosophes in Britain and their political thought has made tremendous impact on the shaping of American culture.At the right beginning of the Enlightenment, British thinker Hobbes claimed that the state of nature knows no government, and government is instituted by people. Before the birth of government, men in a state of nature were in a war of all against all in which life and subsistence were hardly protected. To find a way out of this desperate state, men were willing to make a social contract and transfer their rights to a ruler or rulers to establish the state to keep peace and order. Thus government came into being and men entered a state of society. the Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.htmlWhile sovereignty was conferred by people, people must absolutely obey the monarch. Such philosophy of social contract posed a threat to the Divine Right of King theory, which, as it was called, asserted that God chose some people to rule on earth in his will and whatever the monarch decided was the will of God. However, far from being an anti-authoritarian, Hobbes regarded absolute monarchy as the best government pattern. As a matter of fact, he just converted the divine right of King to that given by people under social contract.Another important person who carried forward and further developed the theory of the social contract was John Locke. But contradicting Hobbes, Locke maintained that the original state of nature was happy and characterized by reason and tolerance; the relationship between humans was peaceful and kind, quite other than the disordered state as described by Hobbes; all human beings were equal and free to pursue “life, health, liberty and possessions”. In his The Second Treatise of Government ，Locke wrote:In a state of nature all men are free and equal.In a state of nature no man ought to harm another.Man acquires property through the products of his labor.In order to remedy inconveniences resulting from a state of naturemen enter into contract, thereby creating a civil society to defend the natural rights of men.If a government violates the social contract it rebels against the people, and the people have the right to dissolve the government.This set forth the doctrine that the contract or consent is the ground of government and fixes its limits. Behind the doctrine laid the idea of the independence of the individual person. Against