机械类专业英语翻译.doc

- 1 - EXTENDING BEARING LIFE Bearings fail for a number of reasons，but the most common are misapplication，contamination，improper lubricant，shipping or handling damage，and misalignment. The problem is often not difficult to diagnose because a failed bearing usually leaves telltale signs about what went wrong However，while a postmortem yields good information，it is better to avoid the process altogether by specifying the bearing correctly in The first placeTo do this，it is useful to review the manufacturers sizing guidelines and operating characteristics for the selected bearing. Equally critical is a study of requirements for noise, torque, and runout, as well as possible exposure to contaminants, hostile liquids, and temperature extremes. This can provide further clues as to whether a bearing is right for a job. 1 Why bearings fail About 40% of ball bearing failures are caused by contamination from dust, dirt, shavings, and corrosion. Contamination also causes torque and noise problems, and is often the result of improper handling or the application environmentFortunately, a bearing failure caused by environment or handling contamination is preventable，and a simple visual examination can easily identify the cause Conducting a postmortem il1ustrates what to look for on a failed or failing bearingThen，understanding the mechanism behind the failure, such as brinelling or fatigue, helps eliminate the source of the problem. Brinelling is one type of bearing failure easily avoided by proper handing and assembly. It is characterized by indentations in the bearing raceway caused by shock loadingsuch as when a bearing is dropped-or incorrect assembly. Brinelling usually occurs when loads exceed the material yield point(350,000 psi in SAE 52100 chrome steel)It may also be caused by improper assembly, Which places a load across the racesRaceway dents also produce noise，vibration，and increased torque. A similar defect is a pattern of elliptical dents caused by balls vibrating between raceways while the bearing is not turningThis problem is called false brinelling. It occurs on equipment in transit or that vibrates when not in operation. In addition, debris created by false brinelling acts like an abrasive, further contaminating the bearing. Unlike brinelling, false binelling is often indicated by a reddish color from fretting corrosion in the lubricant. False brinelling is prevented by eliminating vibration sources and keeping the bearing well lubricated. Isolation pads on the equipment or a separate foundation may be required to reduce - 2 - environmental vibration. Also a light preload on the bearing helps keep the balls and raceway in tight contact. Preloading also helps prevent false brinelling during transit. Seizures can be caused by a lack of internal clearance, improper lubrication, or excessive loading. Before seizing, excessive, friction and heat softens the bearing steel. Overheated bearings often change color，usually to blue-black or straw coloredFriction also causes stress in the retainer，which can break and hasten bearing failure Premature material fatigue is caused by a high load or excessive preloadWhen these conditions are unavoidable，bearing life should be carefully calculated so that a maintenance scheme can be worked out Another solution for fighting premature fatigue is changing materialWhen standard bearing materials，such as 440C or SAE 52100，do not guarantee sufficient life，specialty materials can be recommended. In addition，when the problem is traced back to excessive loading，a higher capacity bearing or different configuration may be used Creep is less common than premature fatigueIn bearingsit is caused by excessive clearance between bore and shaft that allows the bore to rotate on the shaftCreep can be expensive because it causes damage to other components in addition to the bearing 0ther more likely creep indicators are scratches，scuff marks，or discoloration to shaft and boreTo prevent creep damage，the bearing housing and shaft fittings should be visually checked Misalignment is related to creep in that it is mounting relatedIf races are misaligned or cockedThe balls track in a noncircumferencial pathThe problem is incorrect mounting or tolerancing，or insufficient squareness of the bearing mounting siteMisalignment of more than 1/4can cause an early failure Contaminated lubricant is often more difficult to detect than misalignment or creepContamination shows as premature wearSolid contaminants become an abrasive in the lubricantIn addition。insufficient lubrication between ball and retainer wears and weakens the retainerIn this situation，lubrication is critical if the retainer is a fully machined typeRibbon or crown retainers，in contrast，allow lubricants to more easily reach all surfaces Rust is a form of moisture contamination and often indicates the wrong material for the applicationIf the material checks out for the job，the easiest way to prevent rust is to keep bearings in their packaging，until just before installation 2 Avoiding failures The best way to handle bearing failures is to avoid themThis can be done in the selection process by recognizing critical performance characteristicsThese include noise，starting and - 3 - running torque，stiffness，nonrepetitive runout，and radial and axial playIn some applications, these items are so critical that specifying an ABEC level alone is not sufficient Torque requirements are determined by the lubricant，retainer，raceway quality(roundness cross curvature and surface finish)，and whether seals or shields are usedLubricant viscosity must be selected carefully because inappropriate lubricant，especially in miniature bearings，causes excessive torqueAlso，different lubricants have varying noise characteristics that should be matched to the application. For example，greases produce more noise than oil Nonrepetitive runout(NRR)occurs during rotation as a random eccentricity between the inner and outer races，much like a cam actionNRR can be caused by retainer tolerance or eccentricities of the raceways and ballsUnlike repetitive runout, no compensation can be made for NRR. NRR is reflected in the cost of the bearingIt is common in the industry to provide different bearing types and grades for specific applicationsFor example，a bearing with an NRR of less than 0.3um is used when minimal runout is needed，such as in diskdrive spindle motorsSimilarly，machinetool spindles tolerate only minimal deflections to maintain precision cutsConsequently, bearings are manufactured with low NRR just for machine-tool applications Contamination is unavoidable in many industrial products，and shields and seals are commonly used to protect bearings from dust and dirtHowever，a perfect bearing seal is not possible because of the movement between inner and outer racesConsequently，lubrication migration and contamination are always problems Once a bearing is contaminated, its lubricant deteriorates and operation becomes noisierIf it overheats，the bearing can seizeAt the very least，contamination causes wear as it works between balls and the raceway，becoming imbedded in the races and acting as an abrasive between metal surfacesFending off dirt with seals and shields illustrates some methods for controlling contamination Noise is as an indicator of bearing qualityVarious noise grades have been developed to classify bearing performance capabilities Noise analysis is done with an Anderonmeter, which is used for quality control in bearing production and also when failed bearings are returned for analysis. A transducer is attached to the outer ring and the inner race is turned at 1,800rpm on an air spindle. Noise is measured in andirons, which represent ball displacement in m/rad. With experience, inspectors can identify the smallest flaw from their sound. Dust, for example, makes an irregular crackling. Ball scratches make a consistent popping and are the most - 4 - difficult to identify. Inner-race damage is normally a constant high-pitched noise, while a damaged outer race makes an intermittent sound as it rotates. Bearing defects are further identified by their frequencies. Generally, defects are separated into low, medium, and high wavelengths. Defects are also referenced to the number of irregularities per revolution. Low-band noise is the effect of long-wavelength irregularities that occur about 1.6 to 10 times per revolution. These are caused by a variety of inconsistencies, such as pockets in the race. Detectable pockets are manufacturing flaws and result when the race is mounted too tightly in multiplejaw chucks. Medium-hand noise is characterized by irregularities that occur 10 to 60 times per revolution. It is caused by vibration in the grinding operation that produces balls and raceways. High-hand irregularities occur at 60 to 300 times per revolution and indicate closely spaced chatter marks or widely spaced, rough irregularities. Classifying bearings by their noise characteristics allows users to specify a noise grade in addition to the ABEC standards used by most manufacturers. ABEC defines physical tolerances such as bore, outer diameter, and runout. As the ABEC class number increase (from 3 to 9), tolerances are tightened. ABEC class, however, does not specify other bearing characteristics such as raceway quality, finish, or noise. Hence, a noise classification helps improve on the industry standard. - 5 - 如如何何延延长长轴轴承承寿寿命命 1 轴承失效的原因 在球轴承的失效中约有40%是由灰尘、脏物、碎屑的污染以及腐蚀造成的。污染通常 是由不正确的使用和不良的使用环境造成的，它还会引起扭矩和噪声的问题。由环境和 污染所产生的轴承失效是可以预防的，而且通过简单的肉眼观察是可以确定产生这类失 效的原因。 通过失效后的分析可以得知对已经失效的或将要失效的轴承应该在哪些方面进行查 看。弄清诸如剥蚀和疲劳破坏一类失效的机理，有助于消除问题的根源。 只要使用和安装合理，轴承的剥蚀是容易避免的。剥蚀的特征是在轴承圈滚道上留 有由冲击载荷或不正确的安装产生的压痕。剥蚀通常是在载荷超过材料屈服极限时发生 的。如果安装不正确从而使某一载荷横穿轴承圈也会产生剥蚀。轴承圈上的压坑还会产 生噪声、振动和附加扭矩。 类似的一种缺陷是当轴承不旋转时由于滚珠在轴承圈间振动而产生的椭圆形压痕。 这种破坏称为低荷振蚀。这种破坏在运输中的设备和不工作时仍振动的设备中都会产生。 此外，低荷振蚀产生的碎屑的作用就象磨粒一样，会进一步损害轴承。与剥蚀不同，低 荷振蚀的特征通常是由于微振磨损腐蚀在润滑剂中会产生淡红色。 消除振动源并保持良好的轴承润滑可以防止低荷振蚀。给设备加隔离垫或对底座进 行隔离可以减轻环境的振动。另外在轴承上加一个较小的预载荷不仅有助于滚