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初中英语定语从句要点详解 定语从句:用来说明主句中某一名词或代词(有时也可说明整个主句或主句中一部分)而起定语作用的句子叫作定语从句。 一词引导的定语从句 1. 关系代词用来指代先行词是人或物的名词或代词 句子成分 用于限制从句或非限制性从句 只用于限制性从句 代替人 代替物 代替人或物 主语 Who which that 主语 Whom which that 宾语 Whose(=of whom) whose(=of which) 例:This is the detective who came from London. 例:The book which I am reading is written by Tomas Hardy. 例:The desk whose leg is broken is very old. 例:This is the room that Shakespeare was born in. 关系代词的用法 (1) 如果先行词是all, much, anything, something, nothing, everything, little, none等不定代词,关系代词一般只用that,不用which。例如: All the people that are present burst into tears. (2) 如果先等词被形容词最高级以及first, last, any, only, few, mush, no, some, very等词修饰,关系代词常用that,不用which, who,或whom。例如: (3) 非限制性定语从句中,不能用关系代词that,作宾语用的关系代词也不能省略。例如: There are about seven million people taking part in the election, most of whom、are well educated. (4) which还有一种特殊用法,它可以引导从句修饰前面的整个主句,代替主句所表示的整体概念或部分概念。在这种从句中,which可以作主语,也可以作宾语或表语,多数情况下意思是与and this 相似,并可以指人。例如: He succeeded in the competition, which made his parents very happy. (5) that可指人或物,在从句中作表语,(指人作主语时多用who)仅用于限制性定语从句中。 (6) which可作表语,既可指人,以可指物。指人时,一般指从事某种职业或是有种特征品性或才能的人。Which引导的定语从句可以限制性的,也可以是非限制性的。 (7) 如果作先作词的集体名词着眼于集体的整体,关系代词用which;若是指集体中的各个成员,则用who。 (8) 先行词有两个,一个指人,一个指物,关系代词应该用that。例如: The boy and the dog that are in the picture are very lovely. (9) 如果先行词是anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody,关系代词应该用 who 或whom,不用 which。例如: Is there anyone here who will go with you? “介词关系代词“是一个普遍使用的结构 (1) “介词关系代词“可以引导限制性定语从句,也可以引导非限制性定语从句。“介词关系代词“结构中的介词可以是 in, on, about, from, for, with, to at, of, without 等,关系代词只可用whom或 which,不可用 that 。 (2) from where为“介词关系副词“结构,但也可以引导定语从句。例如: We stood at the top of the hill, from where we can see the town. (3) 像listen to, look at, depend on, pay attention to, take care of等固定短语动词,在定语从句中一般不宜将介词与动词分开。例如: This is the boy whom she has taken care of. 二关系副词引导的定语从句 1关系副词也可以引导定语从句 关系副词在从句中分别表示时间地点或原因。关系副词when在从句中充当时间状语,where 充当地点状语,why充当原因状语。 2. that可引导定语从句表示时间地点或原因 That有时可以代替关系副词 when, where 或者why引导定语从句表示时间地点或原因,在 that引导的这种定语从句中,that也可以省去。 三限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句 1二者差异比较 限制定语从句紧跟先行词,同先行词这间一般不加逗号,仅修饰先行词,可以由关系代词关系副词或that来引导。非限制性定语从句仅作补充或说明,用逗号与主句隔开,既可修饰先行词,又可修饰整个主句,不可用that引导。 2关系代词和关系副词的选择依据 弄清代替先行词的关系词在从句中作什么成分,作状语的应选用关系副词,作主语宾语或表语的可选用关系代词。 3. 先行词与定语从句隔离 定语从句一般紧跟在先行词之后,但定语从句与先行词之间有时也会插入别的成分,构成先行词与定语从句的隔离。例如: 1) This is the article written by him that Is poke to you about. 2) He was the only person in this country who was invited. 四As在定语从句中的用法 1. 引导限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句 ()as多与such 或the same连用,可以代替先行词是人或物的名词。 ()as 也可单独使用,引导非限制性定语从句,作用相当于which。例如: The elephants nose is like a snake, as anybody can see. ()the same that与 the same as在意思上是不同的。 2As引导的非限制性定语从句的位置 as引导的非限制性定语从句位置较灵活,可以位于主句前面中间或后面,一般用逗号与主句隔开,但which所引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句之后。例如: (1) As is expected, the England team won the football match. (2) The earth runs around the sun, as is known by everyone.初中英语中连词的用法大全 连词是一种虚词, 它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词,短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类:并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如:and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, bothand, not onlybut also, eitheror, neithernor, (and)then等等。 并列连词引导两个并列的句子。 1)and 与or判断改错:(错) They sat down and talk about something.(错) They started to dance and sang.(错) I saw two men sitting behind and whisper there.(对) They sat down and talked about something.(对) They started to dance and sing.(对)I saw two men sitting behind and whispering there.解析: 第一句: and 连接两个并列的谓语,所以 talk 应改为 talked。 第二句:and 连接两个并列的动词不定式,第二个不定式往往省略to,因此sang 应改为 sing。 第三句:and 连接感观动词saw 后面的用作的宾补的两个并列分词结构,因此whisper应改为whispering。注意:and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。(or也有此用法) Make up your mind, and youll get the chance. = If you make up your mind, youll get the chance. One more effort, and youll succeed. = If you make one more effort, youll succeed. 2)both and两者都She plays (both) the piano and the guitar. 3)not onlybut (also), as well as不但而且)She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar. 注意: not only but also 关联两个分句时,一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。 Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.4)neithenor 意思为既不也不谓语动词采用就近原则,与nor后的词保持一致。Neither you nor he is to blame.初中英语中连词的用法大全or与and比较: 1) 并列结构中,or通常用于否定句,and用于肯定句。2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点: There is no air or water in the moon. There is no air and no water on the moon.在否定中并列结构用or 连接,但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构,因此要用and。典型例题-I dont like chicken _ fish.-I dont like chicken, _ I like fish very much.A. and; and B. and; butC. or; butD. or;and答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but 表转折。判断改错:(错) We will die without air and water.(错) We cant live without air or water.(对) We will die without air or water.(对) We cant live without air and water.so与such比较: 其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so是副词,只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many,few,much, little连用,形成固定搭配。so + adj.such + a(n) + n.so + adj. + a(n) + n.such + n. (pl.)so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.)so + adj. + n. 不可数such +n. 不可数so foolish such a foolso nice a flower such a nice flowerso many/ few flowers such nice flowersso much/little money.such rapid progressso many people such a lot of people so many 已成固定搭配,a lot of 虽相当于 many,但 a lot of 为名词性的,只能用such搭配。 sothat与suchthat之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。 very 修饰原级形容词和副词以及完全形容词性化的现在分词或过去分词,如:tired, ashamed, exciting等 【注】 1. 非形容词性化的分词不能用very修饰, 可用much修饰. eg.) She is very pleased by his words. () She is much pleased by his words. () 2. 一些不分等级的形容词不能用very修饰, 可用quite (completely) 修饰. eg.) You are very wrong. () You are quite wrong. () 3. 部分以a 开头的形容词不能用very修饰, 可用 much修饰. eg.) She was very afraid of dogs. () She was much afraid of dogs. () much 1. 修饰动词 2. 修饰介词以及形容词和副词的比较级 eg.) The girl is much like her mother. She is much younger than her husband. 3. 修饰部分以a开头的形容词, 如: afraid, awake, alive, ashamed, alone, etc. well 作“很,非常,相当”讲, 主要用来修饰动词、介词短语或用于固定搭配。 eg.) She was well past thirty at that time. His house is over there, well above the other houses. I dont know him well. Cook the fish well before eating it. The book is well worth reading. quite 1. 修饰表示绝对意义的形容词或副词, 如:sure, certain, possible, impossible, right, wrong, perfect, dead, ready等。 Eg.) Im quite sure the dog is quite dead. 2. 修饰动词或名词 eg.) She quite likes the bike, but she is not quite ready to buy it. I had quite a time at your party that evening. 3. 可修饰good, well, ld, young等个别形容词的比较级 eg.) Shes feeling quite better today. She looks quite older than before. badly 表示程度时含有迫切之意,常修饰want, need等动词或表示不良情况的短语 eg.) They are badly in need of teachers. She wants to go abroad badly. He was badly wounded. enough 意为 “足够地、非常、很”, 修饰形容词, 副词, 动词, 但须放在这些词的后面. eg.) The meat is not done enough. The boy ran fast enough to catch up with the dog. fast/sound/wide/widely 这些词用作程度副词, 主要用在一些固定搭配中. Eg.) The baby was fast (sound) asleep. She was wide awake at that time. These books are widely different. Opinions vary widely on this subject. nice (good, fine) and +形容词(副词) eg.) He was good and tired after work. The flowers look good and beautiful.初中英语学习中部分否定的几种表示方法 英语中的部分否定(即不完全否定)有如下一些表示方法:一、 all 的否定式:not all(或:allnot)表示“并非都”、“不是所有的都”例如:Not all men can be masters. (= All men cannot be masters.) 并非人人都能当头头。Not all bamboo grows tall. 并非所有的竹子都会长得很高。二、 both 的否定式:notboth (或:both not) “并非两个都” 例如:I dont want both the books. 我不是两本书都要。Both (the) windows are not open. 两扇窗子并不都开着。三、 every的否定式:“不是每都” 例如:Not every book is educative. (或:Every book is not educative.) 不是每本书都有教育意义的。Not everyone likes this book. 并非人人都喜欢这本书。This flower is not seen everywhere. 这花并不是随处可见的。四、 always的否定式:“并非总是(并非一直)” 例如:He is not always so sad. 他并不是一直都这样悲伤。五、 entirely, altogether, completely 和quite 的否定式:“不完全”,“并非完全” 例如:The businessman is never to be entirely trusted. 不可以完全信任商人。He felt not altogether satisfied. 他并不完全满意。I dont agree completely. 我并不完全同意。What he did was not quite proper. 他做的不十分妥当。六、 all the time 的否定式:“并非一直”、“未必老是” 例如:A foolish man doesnt make a mistake all the time. 笨人未必老是犯错误。七、 notand的否定式,被否定的往往是and后面的那一部分。 例如:He did not speak clearly and correctly. 他讲得清楚但不正确。This film is not interesting and instructive. 这部电影有趣但无教育意义。She cannot sing and dance. 她会唱歌但不会跳舞。如果将and 换成or,not 对其后面的两部分就全盘否定了。He did not speak clearly or correctly. 他讲的既不清楚也不正确。如要对上述的all, both, every, always, 以及entirely, altogether, completely, quite 和 all the time 等词作完全否定,那就分别要用与之相对应的全否定词,如no, none, neither, no one, never, not (never) at all 等。例如:All of them can do it. None of them can do it.Both are good.Neither is good.Everybody likes it. Nobody likes it.He is always late. He is never late.We dont trust them entirely. We never trust them at all.He was here all the time. He was never here.英语中肯定与否定的判定当我们判定一个句子是肯定还是否定,我们多会首先从形式上加以裁判。在汉语里有“不”“非”等,在英语里有“no”“not”等来表示否定,而用“是”“yes”来表示肯定。句中使用了表示否定意义的词的句子为否定句,反之则为肯定句。在绝大多数时候,句子的形式及其传达的意义是统一的。然而,无论中文还是英文,都会出现由于表达的习惯,语气的不同以及修辞等目的,用否定句式表达肯定含义,用肯定形式表达否定含义的言不由衷的情况。笔者试着做了一个并不全面的归纳,以期抛砖引玉。在英语中,时常为了达到某种交际的目的而采取一种以否定句式来表达肯定含义的修辞方法,以加强语气或使语气更加委婉含蓄。我们常使用一些特殊的手段来达此目的。 第一,词汇和短语手段。 cannot/couldnt或can/could+否定词(not,never,hardly,scarcely,etc) eg: I cant wait to see him.(=Im excited to see him.) . 否定词(no,not,little,nothing,none,nobody,etc)与but,beyond,except,etc)连用 eg: Nobody but Peter can do it well.(=Only Peter can do it well.)。 第二,使用一些特殊的句式 否定形式的虚拟语气句 eg: If he had not study hard, he could not go to college now.(Thanks to his hard work, he is in college now.) 否定的一般疑问句 eg: Dont you think we should try again?(=I think we should try again.) 特殊疑问句 eg: There is a lift, but why not use the lift?(=You should use the lift since there is a lift.) 过去时的no soonerthan否定结构的句子 eg: No sooner had she got to Guangzhou, she called me.(=She called me the moment she reached Guangzhou.) 含有not+表瞬间动作的动词+till/untill短语或从句。 eg: He didnt come back till 12:00(=He came back at 12:00.)。与此同时,又有一些肯定的句式表达着否定的含义。我们也借助一些词汇和句型来达此目的。 在名词及短语中,常见的有absence不在,stranger不熟悉,eg: I am a stranger in this city.(=I am not familiar with this city.); 动词及短语有escape逃过,ignore忽略,miss错过,eg: I missed the early bus.(I didnt catch the early bus.); 形容词及短语有last不愿意的,deaf to不听,blind to看不见,eg:He is the last man I want to see.(=I dont want to see him at all.), 介词及短语except, instead of. eg: Id like all kinds of food except noodle.(=I dont like to noodle.); 在复合句中包含before引出的状语从句, He left before I got there(=when I got there he wasnt there.)。英语中为表达否肯含义的肯否句式精彩纷呈,了解,熟悉并掌握这些表意手段不仅可以帮助我们正确地理解英文,还可以丰富我们的表达手段。以肯表否或以否表肯的语言现象说明:学习语言不仅要注意语句的表层结构(surface structure),更要研究其深层结构(deep stucture),即要研究其形式和传达的意义之间的各种不同类型的生成关系,切不可不求甚解,望文生义,将语句误解或错用。初中英语学习中的修辞十二种 任何语言都有修辞,英语当然不能例外。在中学英语教学中,修辞显然不是教学重点,但把它束之高阁,甚至在教学中遇到一些常用修辞现象不向学生讲一讲也是欠妥的。我认为,在教学中,如果遇到一些英语修辞 现象,可适当向学生介绍,不仅可以使课文讲解生动,加深学生印象,也可启发学生学习英语的兴趣。现将散见在中学英语课本中的修辞现象分类罗列出来。一、明喻(simile)是以两种具有相同特征的事物和现象进行对比,表明本体和喻体之间的相似关系,两者都在对比中出现。常用比喻词like,as,asif,as though等,例如:1、This elephant is like a snake as anybody can see.这头象和任何人见到的一样像一条蛇。2、He looked as if he had just stepped out of my book of fairytales and had passed me like a spirit.他看上去好像刚从我的童话故事书中走出来,像幽灵一样从我身旁走过去。3、It has long leaves that sway in the wind like slim fingersreaching to touch something.它那长长的叶子在风中摆动,好像伸出纤细的手指去触摸什么东西似的。二、隐喻(metaphor)这种比喻不通过比喻词进行,而是直接将用事物当作乙事物来描写,甲乙两事物之间的联系和相似之处是暗含的。1、German guns and German planes rained down bombs,shells andbullets德国人的枪炮和飞机将炸弹、炮弹和子弹像暴雨一样倾泻下来。2、The diamond department was the heart and center of the store.钻石部是商店的心脏和核心。三、提喻(synecdoche)又称举隅法,主要特点是局部代表全体,或以全体喻指部分,或以抽象代具体,或以具体代抽象。例如:1、The Great Wall was made not only of stones and earth,but ofthe flesh and blood of millio ns of men.长城不仅是用石头和土建造的,而且是用几百万人的血和肉建成的。句中的“the flesh and blood”喻为“the great sacrifice”(巨大的牺牲)2、“saying that it was the most beautiful tongue in theworld,”他说这是世界上最美的语言。这里用具体的“tongue”代替抽象的“language”。4、Many eyes turned to a tall,20year black girl on the U.S.team.很多人将眼光投向美国队一个高高的20岁的黑姑娘。这里的“many eyes”代替了“many persons”。四、拟人(personification)这种修辞方法是把人类的特点、特性加于外界事物之上,使之人格化,以物拟人,以达到彼此交融,合二为一。1、She may have tens of thousand of babies in one summer.(From“ Watching Ants”)一个夏天她可能生育成千上万个孩子。这里用“she”和“babies”把蜜蜂比作人类妇女的生育。2、My only worry was that January would find me hunting for ajob again.我唯一担心的是,到了一月份我又得去找工作。英语里常把“年”“月”“日”人格化,赋以生命,使人们读起来亲切生动。五、夸张(hyperbole)这是运用丰富的想象,过激的言词,渲染和装饰客观事物,以达到强调的效果。1、My blood froze.我的血液都凝固了。2、When I told our father about this,his heart burst.当我将这件事告诉我们的父亲时,他的心几乎要迸出来。3、My heart almost stopped beating when I heard my daughtersvoice on the phone.从电话里一听到我女儿的声音,我的心几乎停止跳动。六、叠言(rhetorical repetition)这种修辞法是指在特定的语境中,将相同的结构,相同意义词组成句子重叠使用,以增强语气和力量。1、It must be created by the blood and the work of all of us whobelieve in the future,who b elieve in man and his glorious manmadedestiny.它必须用我们这些对于未来,对于人类以及人类自己创造的伟大命运具有信心的人的鲜血和汗水去创造。2、 Because good technique in medicine and surgery meansmore quicklycured patients,les s pain,less discomfort,less death,less disease and less deformity.因为优良的医疗技术和外科手术意味着更快地治疗病人,更少痛苦,更少不安,更少死亡,更少疾病,和更少残废。七、借代(metonymy)是指两种不同事物并不相似,但又密不可分,因而常用其中一种事物名称代替另一种。1、Several years later,word came that Napoleonyh himself wascoming to inspect them几年以后,他们听说拿破仑要亲自来视察他们。“word”在这里代替了“news,information”(消息、信息)2、Al spoke with his eyes,“yes”。艾尔用眼睛说,“是的”。“说”应该是嘴的功能,这里实际上是用眼神表达了“说话的意思”。八、双关语(pun)是以一个词或词组,用巧妙的办法同时把互不关联的两种含义结合起来,以取得一种诙谐有趣的效果。Napoleon was astonished.“Either you are mad,or I am,”he declared. “Both,sir!”cried th e Swede proudly.“Both”一词一语双关,既指拿破仑和这位士兵都是疯子,又指这位战士参加过拿破仑指挥的两次战役。九、拟声(onomatcpocia)是摹仿自然界中非语言的声音,其发音和所描写的事物的声音很相似,使语言显得生动,富有表现力。1、On the root of the school house some pigeons were softlycooing.在学校房屋的屋顶上一些鸽子正轻轻地咕咕叫着。2、She brought me into touch with everything that could be reached or feltsunlight,the rustling of silk,the noises of insects,thecreaking of a door,the voice of a loved one.她使我接触到所有够得着的或者感觉得到的东西,如阳光呀,丝绸摆动时的沙沙声呀,昆虫的叫声呀,开门的吱嗄声呀,亲人的说话声呀。十、讽刺(irony)是指用含蓄的褒义词语来表示其反面的意义,从而达到使本义更加幽默,更加讽刺的效果。Well,of course,I knew that gentlemen like you carry only largenotes.啊,当然,我知道像你这样的先生只带大票子。店员这句话意在讽刺这位穿破衣的顾客:像你这样的人怎么会有大票子呢?名为“gentlemen”实则“beg gar”而已。十一、通感(synesthesia)是指在某个感官所产生的感觉,转到另一个感官的心理感受。Some books are to be tasted,others to be swallowed and some fewto be chewed and digested.有些书是应当尝尝滋味的,有些书是应当吞下去的,有少数书是应当咀嚼和消化的。书是“尝”不出味道的,也是不能“吃”下去将其“消化”掉的。这里把读书中的精读和泛读,阅读欣赏与吸收知识的感受,用味觉功能和消化功能来表示,心理感受是如此逼真和奇特。十二、头韵法(alliteration)在文句中有两个以上连结在一起的词或词组,其开头的音节有同样的字母或声音,以增强语言的节奏感。How and why he had come to Princeton,New Jersey is a story of struggle, success,and sadness.他如何和为什么来到新泽西州的普林斯顿是一个充满奋斗、成功和令人伤心的一段经历。以上所列12种修辞格,是中学阶段较为常见的,尤其是以第一、二种最多,按文军的英语修辞格词典 介绍(重庆大学出版社,1992年),英语修辞格细分下来有88种之多。当然,中学教师没有必要向学 生讲述这么多,但也不可认为英语修辞是“高、精、尖”的东西,而不向学生作粗浅的介绍。须知修辞乃是语 言的本体,不是语言的附人教版七至九年级英语单词归类:第一册词组(共26个) 1in English 用英语 2how many 多少 3a piece of bread 一片而包 4four cups of tea 四杯茶 5a pair of shoes 一双鞋 6play chess 下棋 7run after 追逐 8play football 踢足球 9be good at 擅长 10on the basketabll team 在篮球队 11scoot at the basket 投篮 12the first us 第一班车 13at eight 在八点 14hurry up 快点 15a quarter past ten 十点一刻 16five to eleven 差五分十一点 17the next train 下一趟火车 18on Monday 在周一 19a ticket for Shanghai 一张飞往上海的机票 20at home 在家 21a good idea 好主意 22go skating 去滑冰 23in the afternoon 在下午 24in winter 在冬季 25make a snowman 堆雪人 26. put on 穿上,戴上 第二册词组(共84个) 1in Class One,Grade One 在一年级一班 2play ball games 进行球类活动 3read books 读书 4in summer 在夏季 5have ones class 上课 6on the playground 在操场上 7every day 每天 8the first class 第一节课 9be interested in 对感兴趣 10his friend 他的朋友 11go to the zoo 去动物园 12collet stamps 集邮 13make model cars 制作汽车模型 14take pictures 照相 15grow roses 种植玫瑰 16. go fishing 去钓鱼 17Chinese food 中国食物 18my parents 我的父母 19two American boys 两个美国男孩 20a new student 一名新生 21study English 学英语 22thank you 谢谢 23in China 在中国 24speak Japanese 讲日语 25very well 很好 26only a little 只有一点 27a department store 百货商店28of course 当然可以 29try on 试穿 30have a look at看一看 31how much 多少钱 32at the market 在市场里 33do shopping 买东西 34a post office 邮局 35deliver letters 送信 36take care of 照顾 37run a machine 开机器 33get up 起床 39last year 去年 40for a lo

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