段落的写作lecture.doc

段落的写作段落是构成文章的一组句子。段落必须表达完整的意思：或描写事物（describe something），或争论某事（argue about something），或对某事提出疑问（question something），或要求什么（demand something），或给事物下定义（define something），或驳斥某观点（reject something）。一个典型的段落通常由三部分组成：（1）主题句（the topic sentence）；（2）说明或支持主题的推展句（ supporting sentences）；（3）结论句（the concluding sentence）（有些段落没有该部分）。示范段落1We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problemsDoctors say it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs In addition， it can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society示范段落1分析这是一个典型的段落，可概括提纲如下：主题句： We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit，because it causes health problems推展句： 1 Doctors say it can be a direc cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs2 It can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases结论句： It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society从以上提纲可见，主题句提出了一个问题： What kind of health problems does cigarette smoking cause？随后的两个推展句回答了这个问题，结论句总结了推展句并再一次强调主题句。示范段落2（主题句）No one can avoid being influenced by advertisements. （推展句1）Much as we may pride ourselves on our good taste, we are no longer free to choose the things we want, for advertising exerts a subtle influence on us. （推展句2）In their efforts to persuade us to buy this or that product, advertisers have made a close study of human nature and have classified all our little weakness.以上这段由三句话组成。第一句是主题句，直截了当指出无人不受广告影响这个主题，接着列举两个推展句对其补充和支持，指出我们已无法自由选择所需的商品，理由是广告商已仔细研究了我们的心理，并完全掌握了我们的弱点。句子衔接自然，步步紧扣主题。主题句（topic sentence）是表达段落主题的句子。它用以概括段落大意，要求全段其他文字都围绕它展开。主题句通常放在段落的开端，其特点是开门见山地摆出问题，然后加以详细说明。其作用是使文章的结构更清晰，更具说服力，便于读者迅速地把握主题和想象全段的内容。主题句可以放在段中起到承上启下的作用，或放在段尾起概括全段的作用。但初学者比较难于掌握，因而在四级考试中，考生应尽量采用将主题句放在段落开头的写作手法。写好主题句中的关键词：关键词要尽量写得具体些。对“具体”的要求包括两个方面：一是要具体到能控制和限制段落的发展；二是要具体到能说明段落发展的方法。不能太笼统，也不能太具体.原句1: He can fix a bicycle himself.斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。但它只是限制了段落发展的部分内容，并没有告诉读者该用哪种方法展开，是用因果关系法还是用分类法？修正：He can fix a bicycle himself in several simple steps. 修正：There are several reasons why he can fix a bicycle himself.原句2: She tries to improve her looks.斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。她试着改变她面容的理由是什么？或者她采取什么方法来改善呢？我们无法从关键词中清楚得知。修正：She tries many ways to improve her looks. 修正：There are some reasons why she tries to improve her looks。 More good examples:There were two causes that led to the American Civil WarAir travel is more convenient than train for at least three reasonsWhy has the world population been increasing sorapidly in the last decades？There are two ways in which one can own a book. The first is the property right you establish by paying for it, just as you have made it a part of yourself and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by writing in it.本段的主题句如果没有in which 引出的定语从句，那么two ways 不仅不能起制约作用，而且也不能起导向作用，句子本身读起来也就使人觉得欠缺点什么。Exercise is beneficial to your heart. A 22-year study was conducted by doctors in California. They found that people who work at physical jobs experience fewer heart attacks than other people. These active people work all the time at moderate speeds, their daily routine gives them an adequate amount of exercise and helps them stay in shape.Exercise is beneficial这是毫无疑义的。但主题句中如不加上to your heart来加以 control 和 limit，那就流于空泛。主题句通常有以下三种形式：1）肯定句（Affirmative Sentence）Example： The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever before2）反诘句（Rhetorical Sentence）Example： How do you think people will solve the problem of wildlife protection？3）不完整句（Fragments）Example： And the workingman？初学者最好使用肯定句作为主题句。感知段落My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with others. Dont argue with parents; they will think you dont love them. Dont argue with children; they will think themselves victimized. Dont argue with spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate. Dont argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Dont argueOur life today depends very much on energy. In towns and in villages, on farms and in factories, machines have made life easier than it used to be. The machines use energy, and energy is needed for heating, lighting, communications, carrying goods - everything. Factories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the things that we use and buy and sell.The Americans and the British not only speak the same language but also share a large number of social customsFor example， in both America and England， people shake hands when they meet each other for the first time Also， most English men will open a door for a woman or offer their seat to a woman， and so will most Americans Promptness is important both in England and in America That is， if a dinner invitation is for 7 oclock， the dinner guest either arrives close to that time or calls up to explain his delay Birds use many different materials to build nestsSome birds use bits of grass The tailor-bird of Africa and India uses grass to sew leaves together Other birds find twigs and pebbles useful段落的推展 示范段落 There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next year First of all， there is the question of money：Bingstonvs tuition is reasonable and I dont even have to pay it all at once This is very important， since my father is not a rich man With Bingstons “deferred payment plan，” my father will be able to pay my tuition without too much difficultyThe second resaon is the fine education which I feed will receive there in agriculture， my chosen field It is a well-known fact that Bingston hires only the finest professors in its Agriculture Department Moreover， the university reqires all agricultural students to get practical experience by working on farms in the areawhile they are still going to school示范段落分析细节： two main reasons：理由 1financial considerationa reasonable tuitionb deferred payment plan理由 2quality of educationa fine teachersb practical experience在两个主要理由之下，作者用更小的细节支持它们。由此可见，段落的推展依赖于支持主题句的细节（details）。推展段落的方法很多。通常每个段落以一种方法为“支配方法”（ the dominant method），必要时，可运用其它一种或数种方法作为“辅助方法”（ the supporting method）。上面的示范段落使用因果法（cause-and-effect）作为支配方法，分类法（division and classification）作为辅助方法。作者还运用了“重要性排列顺序”（the order of importance）作为安排细节、组织段落的手段。推展句1 主要推展句主要推展句(major supporting statement)的主要特点是：围绕段落主题句展开的每一个推展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明，句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。例1：(主题句) There are several factors affecting climate. (推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received. (推展句2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.主题句指出影响气候的几个因素。然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素。第一种是太阳光的接收量，第二种是海拔高度，第三句和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素。2 次要推展句次要推展句(minor supporting statement)是指对主要推展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明。它从属于某一个或某几个推展句。例2：(主题句)I dont teach because teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句2)For me, teaching is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing. (次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm, because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.从属于主要推展句2的三个次要推展句起着解释说明作用，分别解释red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach的含义，这就更加形象生动地证明了 teaching is not easy 这个主题。ExerciseAlthough thousands of people have been killed by sudden eruptions， volcanoes also benefit man， Tin， tungsten， gold and other metals have been brought closer to the earths surfaceChemicals in the ash have enriched farmland When solid， lava is agood building material And in Italy， steam from active volcanoes supplies heat and power to surrounding areasTopic Sentence：_Details：1_2_3_4_The Womens Movement has had several effects on the English language It has created Ms， a title for women comparable to the title Mr for men The creator of the new title objected to the title Miss and Mrs once given to women because these titles violated a womans privacy by indicating her marital status The use of Msnow permits women to enjoy the same privacy that men have enjoyed with the use of Mr Second， the Movement has changed the ending of many compound words from-man to-personFor instance， the word “chairman” has been replaced in many organization with the word “chairperson”， and the word“salesman”has become salesperson Feminists insist that the substitution of-person for-man makes the position more suitable for members of either sex Third， the Movement is responsible for new termsOne example is male chauvinist pig， a term applied to a man who refuses to recognize the equality of women Another example is female chauvinist sow， a phrase used to describe a female who believes that she is superior to males The most profound effect the Movementhas had on the language is on the third person singular pronounThirty years ago most English instructors forced their students to use he， him， and his for the third person singular when the sex of the person was not known Thus， students were taught to say，“Everyone has his books”Today many English teachers permit students to follow the feminist lead and use the masculine and feminine pronouns together Therefore， constructions such as his or her books are common Although the Womens Movement may not have yet achieved all of its goals， it has made a mark on the English languageTopic Sentence：_Details：1_2_3_4_段落发展的几种手段 1 列举法(details) 作者运用列举法，是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。Yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything I did went wrong. First, I didnt hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didnt read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss. During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. At lunch time, I left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. After lunch, my boss was angry because I hadnt gone to the meeting. Then I didnt notice a sign on a door that said Wet Paint and so I spoilt my jacket too. When I got home I couldnt get into my flat because I had left my key in my office. So I broke a window to get inand cut my hand. 根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything I did went wrong，作者列举了8点内容，分别由first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time等连接词语引出，使得该文条理清楚、脉络分明、内容连贯。 常用于列举法的过渡连接词有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also等。 2. 举例法(example) 作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。 我们来看下面这个用举例法展开的段落。 There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them. 本段采用了三个事例来说明主题句中的关键词组different forms of exercises，这三个例子分别由连接词for example, for another example 和besides引出，最后由引导的结尾句总结全段内容。 举例法中常用的连接词有：for example(instance), one example is, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition等。 示范段落Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the outcome is uncertain，and when the risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to the one taking itFor example，in a Los Angeles suburb，a twelveyearold girl ran into a burning house to rescue her baby brother，pulled him unconscious out of the burning bedroom，and dragged him down the stairs and outside to safetyThis was arousing display of courageThe girl had been safe outside the flaming house when she remembered her sleeping brotherDisregarding her personal safety，she plunged into the flaming house to save him3. 叙述法(narration) 叙述法发展段落主要是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序，通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用，有层次分步骤地表达主题句的一种写作手段。用这种方法展开段落，作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末，从而可以使读者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含义，例如： In the flat opposite, a woman heard the noise outside. When she looked out through the window, she discovered that her neighbour was threatened by someone. She immediately called the police station. In answer to the call, a patrol police car arrived at the scene of the crime quickly. Three policemen went inside the flat at once, and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone from escaping. 这段是按照事物发展的先后顺序，叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程。全文脉络清晰，叙述的层次感强，结构紧凑。 常用于叙述法中的过渡连接词有： first, an the beginning, to start with, after that, later, then, afterwards, in the end, finally等。 示范段落We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassans house，perched high up on a hillWalking up the long driveway，we approached the huge bronze doorA butler was standing in the open doorway，ushering guests into the houseGoing in，we passed the oakpannelled library and the formal dining room before we arrived at the ballroom，where the reception was being heldUnder three sparkling chandeliers，more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne，hors doeuvres and good conversation示范段落分析主题句：We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassans house时间空间顺序：drivewaydoorhouselibrarydiningroomballroom4 对比法或比较法(comparison & contrast) 将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析是一种常用的思维方法。通过对比，更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点，例如： The heart of an electronic computer lies in its vacuum tubes, or transistors. Its electronic circuits work a thousand times faster than the nicer cells in the human brain. A problem that might take a human being a long time to solve can be solved by a computer in one minute. 在这段文字上， 作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快，首先将它与人脑进行了比较， -a thousand times faster than - ;而后，又将这一概念具体到了 a problem上，通过对比使读者从 -a long time -in one minute上有更加直观的认识。 常用于对本法或比较法上的过渡连接词有：than, compared with等。 示范段落41Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbsPeople living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban lifeBut life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more lowkey than in the cityIf city dwellers want to see trees and grass，they must go to one of the public parksOn the other hand，the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs，and each house has its own grassy yardA person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment，but people living in suburan areas must go into the city for entertainment示范段落42The llama is a member of the camel familyLike the camel，the llama can live for weeks without a drink of waterBoth get enough moisture from the grass，shrubs，and other plants they eatBut unlike the camel，the llama has no hump on its back示范段落分析示范段落41所用的支配方法是对比。作者对比城市生活与城郊生活。而示范段落42同时运用了比较和对比方法，既描绘了无峰驼和骆驼的共同点，也描绘了不同点。关于如何写比较或对比段落的建议1）弄清比较或对比的基点在写比较或对比时，第一步是确定比较对比的基点。在示范段落141中，作者把对比基于生活步调、视野和娱乐上。在示范段落142中，作者把比较和对比基于无峰驼和骆驼的特性和外表上。2）用逐事比较或逐点比较的方法组织比较或对比段落一旦确定了比较对比基点，作者就可以用以下两种方式之一推展段落：逐事比较（itembyitem）或逐点比较（pointbypoint）。逐事比较重点放在被比较和对比的特定事物上，先叙述A事物，再叙述B事物。逐点比较重点放在两事物中每个事物的各个特征上，先叙述每个事物某一特征，再叙述每个事物的另一特征。如下面比较“a motorcycle”和“a car”的异同的大纲所示：ItembyItemMotorcycle AExpense BUpkeep CSafetyAutomobile AExpense BUpkeep CSafetyPointbyPointExpense AMotorcycle BAutormobileUpkeep AMotorcycle BAutormobileSafety AMotorcycle BAutormobile3）运用连接词语保持连贯比较和对照 There are many differences between middle school and the college. First, in middle school, we have to listen to what the teacher says in class, to understand the content of the text. But in college, we must study by ourselves before class. If not, we couldnt follow the teacher. Second, there are lots of rules in middle school. For example, we should wear the uniform, the girls must have their hair cut short, and we are not allowed to make boy- or girlfriends. However, in college, we have more freedom. We can wear the clothes we like. And the girls could have long beautiful hair. We are also free to make boy or girlfriends. The third, in the middle school, we must study first. That means we could do nothing but study. In contrast, we have to do everything by ourselves in college. That means we must plan our time carefully. There are also other differences between our school life and our college life. We have to learn to adapt ourselves to college life.? 再如： 题目：Positive and Negative Aspects of Sports提纲： a. 体育运动的好处 b. 体育运动可能带来的副作用 c. 我参加体育活动的体会 Sports do us good in many respects (TS). It goes without saying that taking exercises can build up our physical strength. In collective sports like basketball, volleyball, or football, we will learn the importance of cooperation. While taking part in sports game, we will try our best to win and arouse ourselves the competitive spirit. Sports can also help us relax after a period of exhausting work. However, as the saying goes, there are two sides to everything, and sports is without exception. We may hurt o