专业英语短文翻译2.doc

第五章Section A Why Theories of Learning 为什么需要学习理论。 Most people have an intuitive notion of what it means to learn: They can do something that they could not do before or they know something that they did not know before. In most psychological theories, learning is defined as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential(Driscoll, 2000, p.11), however, the major concepts and principles of learning vary with learning theories.大多数人往往凭直觉认为学习就是学会做一些以前不会做的事情。或者是知道一些以前不知道的。大多数心理学理论将学习定义为人类能力和潜能的持续改变。然而不同的学习理论对学习的主要概念和原理有不同的看法。 Regardless of the differences among psychological perspectives on learning, a solid foundation in various learning theory is undoubtedly the most essential element in the preparation of ISD professional. They must be familiar with the theory and research on learning and must be able to apply them to actual practice. For example, a designer working on an early childhood education project will find insight into childrens behavior and the value of a rich learning environment in the work of Piaget. Ausubel and Rothkopf are valuable resources when producing textual materials. Designers familiar with social learning theory of Bandura will not ignore environmental factors that significantly affect instructional programs, nor overlook the power of informal learning channels (e.g., observational learning). Bruners rich philosophical insight into discovery learning and problem solving, Kellers work on motivation, Knowles emphasis on factors that facilitate adult learning, and the work of others contribute to a designers overall understanding of the learning process and skill in designing instructional strategies. Cognitive science (Klatzky, Anderson, Gagne, Wildman & Burton) is making a major contribution to our understanding of how humans perceive, process, store, and retrieve information. Schema theory, elaboration, metacognition, automaticity, expert/novice studies, and transfer are only a few of the constructs studied by cognitive psychologists that have important implication for the design of instruction. 尽管心理学上对学习的观点存在差异。拥有一个坚实的学习理论基础无疑是教学系统设计专业人员职前培养中最基本的要素。教学系统设计人员必须熟悉关于学习的理论和研究。并将之付诸实践。例如。一个致力于早期儿童教育项目的设计者将会借助皮亚杰的著作来研究儿童行为以及丰富学习环境的价值。奥苏贝尔和罗斯科普夫的思想是开发文本资料的重要理论资源。熟悉班杜拉的社会学习理论的设计者不会忽视对教学计划有很大影响的环境因素。也不会忽略非正式学习途径(如观察学习)的影响力。布鲁纳关于发现学习和问题求解的哲学思想。凯勒在学习动机方面的工作。诺尔斯对促进成人学习因素的强调。以及他人的工作都有助于设计者从大体上理解学习的过程和教学策略设计的技巧。认知科学。克拉斯基。安德森。加涅。威廉姆和伯顿。在解释人类如何感知，加工，存储和重和重解信息等方面作出了很大的贡献。图式理论。精细化。元认知。自动化。专家。新手的学习。以及迁移理论都对教学设计有重要启示。这只是认知心理学家们众多研究中的一小部分。 Without a broad-based foundation in learning theory, the practice of ISD becomes narrowly focused on means (the steps in the systems model) rather that on the rightful end (learning) (Schiffman, 1986, pp.137-138).倘若缺乏广泛的学习理论基础。教学系统设计实践的焦点就会狭隘的集中在方法上(系统模型中的步骤)而不是恰当的学习结果上。Section B What is Behaviorism? 什么是行为主义？Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. 给我一打健康、外形完好的婴儿，把他们放在我设计的特殊的环境里培养，我敢保证，随便挑出一个来，我就能把他训练成为我所选择的任何一类专家-医生、律师、艺术家、商业首领，甚至是乞丐或小偷，而无论他的才能、爱好、倾向、能力或他的先辈的职业和种族是什么。Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.行为心理学，也称为行为主义，是一种基于所有的行为都是通过条件刺激而产生的学习理论。条件刺激就是重现与环境的相互作用。根据行为主义的观点，可以通过系统方法和观察的方式来研究人的行为，而不用考虑人的内部心理状态。The Rise of Behaviorism Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind. Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.20世纪初，心理学发展成为一个学派被认为是行为主义的崛起。忽略有意识和无意识的想法是行为主义与之前的理论思想的一个重大改变。相反，行为主义完全通过专注于可视的行为来使得心理学变成更科学的学科。Behaviorism had its earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. Pavlovs research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process, which demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.最早从事于行为主义研究工作的是俄罗斯的生理学家巴甫洛夫。他的关于狗的消化系统的研究也导致了经典性条件反射过程的发现，这个发现证明了行为都能通过关联的条件刺激来学习。巴甫洛夫还证明了这个学习过程可以用于创造环境刺激与本能刺激间的相关联。An American psychologist named John B. Watson soon became one of the strongest advocates of behaviorism. Initially outlining the basics principles of this new school of thought in his 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson later went on to offer a definition in his classic book Behaviorism (1924), writing:一位名叫约翰沃森的美国心理学家很快就成为了行为主义的拥护者之一。1913年，在他的论文从行为主义者的视角看心理学中概括了这个新学派的基本框架与原则。之后与1924年在他的经典著作行为主义中提供了一个定义。他这样写： “Behaviorism.holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic.” The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years. PsychologistB.F. Skinnerfurthered the behaviorist perspective with his concept ofoperant conditioning, which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.“行为主义主张人类心理学的主题是人类的行为。行为主义宣称意识既不是一个明确的,也不是一个有用的概念。行为主义者总是坚持经验主义，而且，意识的存在问题可以追溯到古代的迷信和魔法。”行为主义这个学派在接下来的50年里产生了巨大的影响。心理学家斯金纳的操作性条件反射证明了惩罚与强化对行为的影响，进一步充实了行为主义的观点。While behaviorism eventually lost its hold on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are still widely in use today. Therapeutic techniques such asbehavior analysis, behavioral modification and token economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills、and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging from parenting to education.尽管行为主义最终失去了它所坚持的心理学，但行为心理学的基本准则在今天仍被广泛使用。治疗技术中的行为分析、行为修正，行为矫正，在多数情况下用于从养育到教育的过程中帮助孩子学习新技能、克服不适应的行为。Section C What is Cognitivism? 什么是认知主义“Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement（强化）, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information.”认知主义家指出，大多数的学习都涉及到通过接触与重复建立确切的联系。虽然他们强调它在提供正确性反馈方面的作用胜过它作为动力的作用，但是也承认强化的重要性。然而，尽管他们接受行为主义的某些观点，但是认知主义家们认为学习是认知结构的获得和重组即人们加工的和存储信息的过程。The Basics of Cognitivism 基本的认知主义Cognitivists view learning as a reorganization of the cognitive structure in which individuals store information (Good & Brophy, 1990 ). According to cognitivist, knowledge occurs in internal structures called schemas . When new information comes in though the senses , it is compared with the schemas already present , and the schemas may then be combined or changed in light of the new information . Information is processed in three stages. It first enters through the senses , and, if it is important or interesting , it then goes to short-term memory , where it may be kept for 20 seconds or more . Some of this information in short-term memory may then go on long-term memory , where it is stored and from which it can be retrieved.认知主义者认为学习是个人对存储信息与认知结构的重组。根据认知主义的观点看，知识是重现内在结构的概念。当感知到新信息时，会与先前已存在的概念相比较，然后进行整合或者将信息作出改变。信息的加工分为三个步骤。首先，通过感知觉获得信息，如果它重要或者有趣，就会进行至少保持20秒的短时记忆。一些短时记忆的信息可能会被检索出来以长时记忆的形式存储。Cognitivists hold that meaningful information is easier to learn and information that is not meaningful to the learner, and that practicing and rehearsing information improves retention (Mergel, 1998) . It follows from this that workers who are learning the elements of a new skill will learn more easily if the new skill is meaningful or relevant to them. It also follows that the more the information about how to perform the new task is repeated , the better the worker will retain it. 认知主义坚信，对于学习者而言，学习有意义的信息比无意义的信息更容易，并且，练习和预演知识能改善记忆力。下面的例子也说明了这一点。一个工人学习要学习一种新技术的基础，如果它有意义或者与他们相关就会相对容易。并且知道如何反复操作的信息越多就能越好的学习它。Section D Constructivism D部分 建构主义 Constructivism is a type of learning theory the explain human learning as an active attempt to construct meaning in the world around us . Constructiviets believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.建构主义学习理论是这样一种学习理论，即他认为学习是人们对周围世界的积极的有意义的建构。建构主义认为，与行为主义和认知主义相比，学习应该是更加积极和自主的。 Constructivism divides learning into two types: accommodation and assimilation. The focus is on the individual is desire and ability to learn , and the teacher or therapist is merely there to help guide self-directed learning. 建构主义将学习分为两种类型：顺应和同化。重点在于个人的学习意愿和学习能力，并且老师或者专家仅仅帮助指导自主学习。The basics of constructivism 基本的建构主义 Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individuals knowledge is a function of ones prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events. What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind. (Jonasson, 1991). 巴特利特是倡导建构学习方法的先驱者。建构主义认为“学习者建构事实或者至少在解释事实时都是基于他们的感知经验，因此，个人的知识是缘由感知经验，心理结构和揭示事物信心的集合”“有人认为知识是建立在身体感知和社会经验的基础上的” If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his articleThinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model,makes the following comments: 如果每个人对现实都有他们自己的看法，那我们怎样开展社交和和平共处呢？乔纳生在他的思维技术：致建构主义设计模型一文中提及这个问题，并引发了以下的思考： Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy. 也许，最常见的对建构主义的误解就是这样一种推论，我们每个人都构建一个只存在我们自己心里的独特的事实，就会导致思维混乱。 A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way. 对于这个批判的观点，作出了合理的回应，他认为存在这样一个物理世界，它受物理规则的制约，并且我们几乎都能用相同的方式感知这种规则。 Constructivism also believes that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation. 建构主义也认为很多现实是通过社会协商的过程达成共享的. If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound influence was Jean Piagets work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997). 如果一项研究要经历许多过去的哲学和心理学理论，那么，在康德,库恩,杜威等人的书中都曾写到建构主义。影响最长远的还是德国格拉斯菲尔德翻译的的让.皮亚杰的作品。Section A Gagnes Theory of Instruction 加涅的教学理论 Although many learning theorists may be interested in what their work means for instruction, the explanation of learning is their primary concern. Robert M. Gagne, by contrast, was concerned primarily with instruction and how what was known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction. He proposed and integrated and comprehensive theory of instruction that is based primarily on two foundations: cognitive information processing theory and Gagnes own observations of effective teaching in the classroom.尽管很多学习理论家可能会对他们研究工作的教学意义感兴趣。但他们最关心的还是对学习的解释。相反。罗伯特加涅主要关心的是教学以及如何将已知的有关学习的理论与教学设计系统化的联系起来。它基于认知信息加工理论和自己在课堂上对有效教学的观察提出一整套综合性的教学理论。As it evolved, then, Gagnes theory of instruction came to comprise three components:(1) a taxonomy of learning outcomes that defined the types of capabilities humans can learn;(2) internal and external learning conditions associated with the acquisition of each category of learning outcome;(3) nine events of instruction that each facilitates a specific cognitive process during learning.随着理论的不断完善。加涅的教学理论逐渐发展为三部分内容:一、定义人类学习能力类型的学习结果分类理论； 二、与所习得各种类型学习结果相关的内部和外部学习条件理论；3、 在学习中促进具体认知过程的九段教学法；Taxonomies of learning existed before and since Gagnes formulation of his, but none besides his includes all three domains in which individuals were presumed to learn: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. According to Gagne (1972, 1985; Gagne & Medsker, 1996), there are five major categories of learning:学习分类在加略理论的兴城之前就已存在，但是包括加略学习结果分类理论在内，都未完全包含个体应学习内容的三个域：认知、情感和精神运动。根据加略理论（1972,1985：加略和梅德斯克，1996），认为有一下五种主要的学习分类：(1) verbal information, that is , knowing “that” or “what”;(2) intellectual skills, that is, applying knowledge;(3) cognitive strategies, that is, employing effective ways of thinking and learning;(4) attitudes, that is, feelings and beliefs that govern choices of personal action;(5) motor skills, that is, executing precisely, smoothly and accurately timed movements. （1）言语信息，即知道是“那个”或“什么”； （2）智慧技能，也就是应用知识；（3）认知策略，也就是使用有效的思考和学习方式；（4）态度，也就是掌控个人行为选择的感觉和信念；（5）动作技能，也就是能再限制的时间内准确、熟练、精确地运动。The reason for defining different categories of learning outcomes stems from the assumption that they must all require different conditions for learning. For example, learning to ride a bicycle(a motor skill) is different in fundamental ways from learning to solve scientific problems(intellectual skill).之所以根据不同学习结果来定义不同的学习类型，是因为不同类型的学习需要不同的学习条件。列如，学习骑自行车（一种动作技能）与学习乘法表（言语信息）在方式上是有本质区别的，与学习解决科学问题（智慧技能）的基本方式也大不相同。In addition to conditions of learning that are unique to each leaning outcome, there are conditions of learning which facilitate the process of learning in general. Gagne conceived of the nine events of instruction as learning conditions to support internal processed such as attention, encoding, and retrieval. The events of instruction are presented briefly below: 除了每一种学习结果所需要的独特学习条件之外，学习条件还包括可以促进学习过程的一般条件。加略给出了九段教学法，作为支持注意力、编码和知识提取等内部学习过程的学习条件。该教学法简述如下： 1.gaining attention: a stimulus change to alert the leaner and focus attention on desired features. 2.Informing the learner of the objective:a statement or demonstration to form an expectancy in the learner as to the goals of instruction. 3.stimulating recall of prior learning： a question or activity to remind the learner of prerequisite knowledge. 4.Presenting the stimulus:an activity or information that presents the content of what is to be learned. 5.Providing learning guidance: a cue or strategy to promote encoding. 6.Eliciting performance:an opportunity to practice or otherwise perform what is being learned. 7.Providing feedback:information of a corrective nature that will help leaners to improve their performance. 8.Assessing performance：an opportunity to demonstrate what has been learned. 9.Enhancing retention and transfer;examples or activities that prompt the learner to go beyond the immediate context of instruction. 1.引起注意：刺激性变化引起学习者的注意力，使其集中精力与所期望的特征。2.明确学习目标：通过描述或展示使学习者形成对教学目标的期望。3.刺激回忆先前的学习：设计问题或活动使学习者想以前所学知识。4.呈现刺激：用活动或信息来呈现即将学习的内容。5.提供学习指导：促进编码的线索或策略。6.引导作业：提供实践活动的机会或执行所学内容。7.提供反馈：正确的信息反馈将会帮助学习者提升绩效。8.评估作业：提供平价所学知识的机会。9.促进保持和迁移:提供案例或活动以促进学习对当前教学知识进行迁移。 The application of Gagnes theory is often a highly analysis affair，and it is therefore possible to lose sight of the overall context for learning while all the details of instruction.As a means of helping instructional designers integrate multiple goals into instruction. 加略教学理论的应用往往是一件需要精确分析的事情，因而在处理教学细节的 过程中难免会忽视在整体上把握学习镜脉。作为帮助教学设计的工具，教学设计者可以将许多目标整合到教学中。Section B Bloom s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives布鲁姆的教育目标分类法 At the present time, it is sufficient to state that instructional objectives are concretestatements of the goals toward which instruction is directed. They play an important rolein the process of learning and instruction. 目前,它足以状态,教学目标是具体目标的陈述为指导指导。他们中起重要作用的学习过程和指导。When developing instructional objectives, providing instruction, and evaluating student performance, it is important to keep in mind that there are different levels or outcomes of learning. Distinguishing among different levels and outcomes of learning is important. If teachers are unaware of different levels of learning, they are likely to focus on one level to the detriment of others. For example, a teacher may teach a vast amount of factual information but never get around to teaching students to apply and synthesize this information. Or a teacher may teach higher level thinking skills without realizing that these skills require the prior learning of basic skills that must be integrated into these higher order skills. 当制定教学目标、提供指导和评估学生的成绩,这是很重要的,记住有不同层次或结果的学习。区分不同的水平和成果的学习是很重要的。如果老师都没有意识到的不同学习水平,他们很可能会专注于一个水平的损害他人。例如,老师可以教大量的实际资料,但从不回头教导学生如何应用和合成此信息。还是一个老师可以教更高层次的思考技巧而没有意识到这些技能都需要事先学习的基本技能,必须纳入这些高阶技巧。 Bloom s (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is the most renowned description of the levels of cognitive performance. The levels of this taxonomy are considered to be hierarchical. That is, learners must master lower level