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Chapter 14 prevention and treatment of serious complications during general anesthesia,Introduction Complications of anesthesia involve three aspects: 1. Patients condition 2. Diathesis of anesthetist 3. Influence and fault of anesthetics、 anesthetic apparatus and correlated instrument,Serious Complications during General Anesthesia Respiratory tract obstruction Respiratory depression Hypotension and Hypertension Myocardial ischemia Hyperthermia and Hypothermia Awarenss and Delay of Awake Cough、Singultus、Postoperative vomiting、 Postoperative pulmonary infection Malignant hyperthermia,Respiratory Obstruction 一、Glossocoma: 1Aetiology: 2Liability factor: (1)Justo major of corpus linguae (2)Short and stout (3)Short neck (4)Lymphadenosis of throat posterior wall (5)Hypertrophy of tonsils,Respiratory Obstruction 3Clinical features: 4Management: (1)Side lying、 (2)Head hypsokinesis、 (3)Lift submaxilla、 (4)Oropharyngeal parichnos Nasopharyngeal parichnos,Respiratory Obstruction 二、Airway obstruction by secretion、 purulent sputum、blood and foreign object 1Aetiology: (1)Inhalation of stimulant anesthetic, (2)Bronchiectasis、pulmonary abscess、 pulmonary tuberculous cavity,Respiratory Obstruction (3)Operation of cavum nasopharyngeum、 oral cavity、Harelip (4)Desquamation of tooth or artifcal teeth 2Management: (1)Sufficient belladonna premedication (2)Intubation (3)Suck respiratory tract (4)Pull out dentium vacillatia or artifcal teet,Respiratory Obstruction 三、Regurgitation and Aspiration 1Aetiology:Anticholinergic agent Morphine General anaesthetics Muscle relaxant 2Clinical features: (1)Bronchospasm (2)Tachypnea and dyspnea (3)Moist rales (4)Sever hypoxia,Respiratory Obstruction 3Management: (1)Fasting: Adult:8h before anesthesia Children: milk and solid diet liquid 36 m 8h 3h,Respiratory Obstruction (2)Preoperative administration of an H2-receptor antagonist(cimetidine or ranitidine)to decrease further secretion of additional acid. (3)Application of gastric decompression by a wide- bore nasogastric tube; Preparing for suction (4)Full stomach/high level ileus:awake intubation (5)Rapid - sequence induction and intubation without positive - pressure ventilation before intubation.,Respiratory Obstruction (6)Application of cricoid compression to control regurgitation of gastric contents (7)Extubation when the patient is fully awake (8)Aspiration: Head down position,suck vomitus Bronchial antispasmodic and antibiotics Respiration support Lavage of trachea using 0.9%NaCl,Respiratory Obstruction 四、Malposition of catheter、Obstruction of lumina、Anaeshetic machine failure 1. Aetiology:Catheter twist Block by sputum Corrugated tube twist Malfunction of respiration valve 2. Management:Examine position of catheter Respiratory sound Breathing circuit Respiration valve,Respiratory Obstruction 五、Trachea Compression 1. Aetiology:tumor of neck or mediastinum hematoma 、edema calidum 2. Management: 六、Inflam affection of pharyngo-oral cavity、 Larynx tumer、Allergia laryngeal oedema 1. Aetiology:peritonsillar abscess、 Larynx tumor pharynx posterior wall abscess 2. Management:,Respiratory Obstruction 七、Laryngospasm and Bronchospasm (一)Laryngospasm: 1. Aetiology:pharyngeal vagus nerve excitability 2. Evoked reasons: (1)hyoxemia、hypercapnia、secretion、intubation oropharynx parichnos、laryngoscope (2)light anesthesia 3. Clinical features 4. Management,Respiratory Obstruction 5. Prevention:avoid light anesthesia、hypoxia carbon dioxide accumulation (二)Bronchospasm: 1. Aetiology: (1)Tracheal intubation、aspiration、suck sputum (2)Operation stimulate (3)Thiopental Sodium、Morphine 2. Clinical features: 3. Management:,Respiratory depression 一、Central Respiratory depression 1Aetiology:anesthetics、hyperventilation narcotic analgesics 、 inflate lung unduly 2Management: (1)Anesthetics reduce depth of anesthesia (2)Narcotic analgesics Naloxone (3)Hyperventilation、inflate lung undulyVT,Respiratory depression 二、Peripheral Respiratory depression 1. Aetiology:muscle relaxant hypopotassemia general anaesthesia + epidural block 2. Management: (1)Muscle relaxant Neostigmine Bromide (2)Hypopotassemia supply potassium in time (3)Spinal nerve block wait,Respiratory depression 三、Respiration Management 1. Effective ventilation 2. Select of ventilation mode: (1)Assistor respiration (2)Controlled respiration,Hypotention and Hypertension 一、Hypotension 1Hypotension: 20% or 80mmHg 2Aetiology: (1)anesthesia aspects (2)operation aspects (3)patient aspects,Hypotention and Hypertension 3Prevention: (1)Insufficient body fluid sufficiently supply (2)Severe anaemia (3)Severe mitral valve stenosis (4)Myocardial ischemia maintain blood pressure,Hypotention and Hypertension (5) Myocardial infarction (6) Congestive heart failure (7) BBB、sick sinus syndrome pacemaker (8) Hypopotassemia (9) Atrial fibrilation 80120 bpm (10)Using long-term corticosteroid,Hypotention and Hypertension 4Management: (1)Reduce depth of anesthesia (2)Transfusion,Ephedrine (3)Severe coronary heart disease support cardiac pump function (4)Drag internal organs stop operative procedure (5)Adrenal insufficiency large dose of dexamethasone (6)Cardiac arrestcardiac resuscitation,Hypotention and Hypertension 二、Hypertension 1Hypertension: 2Aetiology: (1)Anesthesia aspects (2)Operation aspects (3)Patient aspects,Hypotention and Hypertension 3. Prevention: (1)Sufficient premedication (2)Phaeochromocytoma、hyperthyroidism (3)Intubation enhance anesthesia surface anaesthesia or -receptor blocker (4)Avoid hypoxia and carbon dioxide accumulation,Hypotention and Hypertension (5)Craniocerebral operationsdroperidol (6)Operation stress compound with epidural block 4Management: (1)Increase depth of anesthesia (2) or -Receptor blocker vascular smooth muscle relaxant (3)Ventilatory capacity、FiO2,Myocardiac Ischemia 一、Correlative physiological knowledge 1. Oxygen consumption of myocardium: (1)HR (2)myocardial contractility (3)intraventricular pressure 2. Coronary Perfusion Pressure = AOP IMP AOP- aortic pressure IMP- intramyocardial pressure,Myocardiac Ischemia 二、Diagnostic method:ECG 1. Cardiac conduction abnormality 2. Arhythmia 3. Q wave,R wave progressive step down 4. S-T l mm or 2 mm 5. T wave is low、bidirection or inversion,Myocardiac Ischemia 三、Aetiology 1. Tension、fear、pain 2. Hypotension or hypertension 3. Myocardial contractility suppression and vessel distension by anesthetic 4. Hypoxia 5. Tachyrhythmia or Arhythmia,Myocardiac Ischemia 四、Management 1. Maintain the balance of Oxygen supply- demand 2. Delay selective operation 3. Monitor:ECG、MAP、CVP、CO、 SVR、Urine volume 4. -receptor blocker or calcium channel blocker 5. Analgesia using morphine 6. General anaesthesia + epidural block,HYPERTHERMIA AND HYPOTHERMIA 一、Heat Production and Elimination 1Heat Production: 2Heat Elimination: (1)Radiation: 60% (2)Conduction:3% (3)Cconvection:12% (4)Evaporation:25%,HYPERTHERMIA AND HYPOTHERMIA 二、Normal Thermoregulation : 1. Thermoregulatory control system: (1)Cold-response thresholds:36.5,vasoconstriction (2)Warm-response thresholds:37,sweat 2. Thermoregulation during General Anesthesia: (1)warm-response thresholds:1 to 38 (2)cold-response thresholds:2 to 34.5 3. Responses in infants and the elderly,HYPOTHERMIA 三、Hypothermia:core temperature 36 1Evoked reasons: (1)Cold operating rooms (2)Indoor vent (3)Administration of cold intravenous fluids (4)Evaporation from surgical incisions (5)General anesthetic,HYPOTHERMIA 2Influence of hypothermia: (1)Drug metabolism is markedly duration of action of anesthetics (2)Coagulation is impaired (3)Blood vicidity (4)Oxygen dissociation curve shift to left (5)Shivering oxygen capacity 3Prevention,HYPERTHERMIA 四、Hyperthermia: 1Evoked reasons: (1)Room temperature 28 (2)无菌单覆盖过于严密 (3)开颅手术在下视丘附近操作 (4)large dosage of atropine (5)Response to transfusions (6)Ventilation:循环紧闭法,HYPERTHERMIA 2Influence of Hyperthermia (1)Basal metabolic rate (2)Metabolic acidosis、hyperkaliemia hyperglycosemia (3) 40convulsion 3Prevention,Awarenss and Delay of Awake 一、Awarenss 1. Neurophysiology of Awarenss 2. Anaesthetic technique (1)N2O-O2- Muscle relaxant (2)Fentanyl - Diazepam (3)Thiopental or Thiopental - Ketamine,Awarenss (4)N2O- Fentanyl (5)Etomidate - Fentanyl (6)Procaine combined anesthesia 3. Management: (1)Avoid light anaesthesia (2)Monitor brain stem auditory evoked potential(BSAEP),PRST记分系统 指标 体征 分值 收缩压(mmHg) 对照值 + 30 2 心率(次/min) 对照值 + 30 2 汗液 无 0 皮肤潮湿 1 可见汗珠 2 泪液 分开眼睑泪液不多 0 分开眼睑泪液过多 1 闭眼有泪液流出 2,Delay of Awake 二、Delay of Awake: 30min 1. Aetiology: (1)Influence of Anaesthetic: Premedication Inhalation Anaesthetic Narcotic Analgesic Muscle Relaxant,Delay of Awake (2)Respiratory depression: Narcotic Analgesic and Muscle Relaxant Hypocapnia Hypercarbia Kaliopenia Overdose of Transfusion Complications of operation Severe metabolic acidosis,Delay of Awake (3)Severe Complications : massive bleeding serious cardiac arrhythmias acute myocardial infarction rupture of intracranial aneurysm cerebral hemorrhage cerebral embolism (4)Long time of hypotension and hypothermia (5)Cerebral vessels affection before operation,Delay of Awake 2. Management: (1)Aspect of Anaesthetic technique (2)corresponding management (3) dehydration:encephaledema intracranial hypertension (4)hypothermia - warm (5)long-term hypotension (6)primary cerebral disease,Cough、Singultus、Postoperative vomiting and postoperative pulmonary infection 一、Cough 1. Degree of cough (1)轻度:阵发性腹肌紧张和屏气 (2)中度:阵发性腹肌紧张、屏气,颈后仰、 下颌僵硬、紫绀 (3)重度:腹肌、颈肌、支气管平滑肌阵发性 强力持续性痉挛,上半身翘起、 长时间屏气、严重紫绀,Cough 2. Harmful effects of cough (1)腹内压剧增内脏外膨、胃内容物反流、 伤口及组织撕裂 (2)颅内压剧增,对原有颅内病变者可致 脑出血或脑疝 (3)血压剧增伤口渗血、心脏作功、 甚至诱发心衰,Cough 3Evoked reasons of cough: (1)Barbiturates (2)Cold volatility anaesthetics and secretion of trachea (3)Intubate and suck sputum under light anaesthesia (4)Aspiration,Cough 4Management: (1)Sufficient muscle relaxant (2)Diazepam and Droperidol (3)Aspiration balloon tracheal catheter、 gastrointestinal decompression,Singultus 二、Singultus: 1. Evoked reasons: (1)强烈牵拉内脏、直接刺激膈肌及膈神经 (2)全麻诱导时将大量气体压入胃内 2. Harmful effects of cough: 3. Management: (1)Sufficient muscle relaxant (2)Postoperation Diazepam and Droperidol acupuncture of endoclosure cave,Postoperative vomiting 三、Postoperative vomiting 1. Aetiology: (1)role of anaesthetics inhalation anesthetic:ether methoxyflurane enflurane isoflurane N2O sevoflurane intravenous anesthetic (2)category of operation (3)conditions of patients,Postoperative vomiting 2. Harmful effects of cough: (1)pain、wound dehiscence: (2)vomit aspiration or asphyxiation (3)Water-Electrolyte unbalance and Acid-Base unbalance 3. Management,Postoperative pulmonary infection 四、Postoperative pulmonary infection (一)Pathogenic bacteria: (二)Aetiology: 1. Aerosolizer pollution 2. Intubation、incision of trachea、 endotracheal anesthesia 3. Aspiration 4. Surgery 5. Abuse medication,Postoperative pulmonary infection (三)Clinical manifestation 1. Sings and symptoms 2. Examination of bacteriology (1)Smear of sputum and bacterial culture (2)Hemoculture 3. Chest X-ray,Postoperative pulmonary infection (四)Diagnostic criteria 1. Fever、rales,X-ray 2. Pathogenic bacteria 3. Hemoculture:positive 4. Secretion of lower respiratory tract 5. Secretion of respiratory tract、serum 、 and other body fluid,Postoperative pulmonary infection (五)Treatment: 1. antibiotics 2. immunotherapy 3. upportive treatment,Malignant Hyperthermia Malignant hyperthermia(MH): an eerie and erratic metabolic mayhem, is a clinical syndrome that in its classic form occurs during anesthesia with a potent volatile agent such as halothane and the depolarizing muscle relaxant succinylcholine, producing rapidly increasing temperature(by as much as 1 /5 min)and extreme acidosis. incidence was 1:1.610104,mortality rate was 73%,Malignant Hyperthermia 一、Evoked reasons:halothane、ethoxyflurane enflurane、scoline、 chloropromazine lidocaine、bupivacaine 二、Clinical Syndromes: 1. Temperature increases : exceed 43 2. Whole-body rigidity occurs,Malignant Hyperthermia 3. Myocardial function is severely altered 4. Increased serum levels of CK myoglobinuria 5. Contractile response 6. PaCO2 may exceed 100 mm Hg, and pHa may be less than 7.00,Malignant Hyperthermia 三、Treatment: 1. Discontinue all anesthetic agents and hyperventilate with 100% oxygen. 2. Control fever by iced fluids, surface cooling, cooling of body cavities with sterile iced fluids, and a heat exchanger with a pump oxygenator 3. Administer bicarbonate(2 to 4 mEq/kg),Malignant Hyperthermia 4. Repeat administration of dantrolene: 2mg/kg,5l0 min repeat 5. Treatment of hyperkalemia :10u insulin 6. Monitor urinary output : mannitol 0.5g/kg frusemide l mg/kg 7. Corticosteroids 8. ICU: monitor and treat for 48h,病历报道 一般资料:女患,15岁,2004年4月23日拟行 脊柱侧弯矫形术,无其他既往史 术前药:鲁米那、阿托品 麻醉诱导:咪唑安定、芬太尼、万可松、 异丙酚,插管顺利 麻醉维持:异氟烷 + 芬太尼 + 万可松 监测:ECG、MAP、SpO2、PETCO2,手术过程: 手术3小时后 PETCO2 : 到60 mmHg,并持续 心率: 至150160 bpm 体温:最高41.3 血气:pH 110 mmHg K+ 5.6 mmol/L 、Ca2+ 1.27 mmol/L 肌酸激酶 1775 u/L 血压:至70/40mmHg左右 双肺呼吸音及麻醉机未见明显异常,疑诊:恶性高热 措施:立即停用吸入麻醉药,更换呼吸机回路 降温毯物理降温 多巴胺、去氧肾上腺素维持血压 2h后:体温至37 血气:pH 6.85、PaCO2 80 mmHg BE -19mmol/L 尿量 80 ml/h 为进一步处理转入ICU,ICU情况: 瞳孔3mm、光反射存在、球结膜轻度水肿 体温:37.0左右,继续降温,持续肛温监测 心率130bpm、血压91/56mmHg、CVP 20 mmHg 血气:PaCO2 41 mmHg 尿量:当日正常、次日少尿,很快无尿 肾功:血肌酐:97 umol/L333 umol/L 尿素氮:升至19.2mmol/L,生化:GOT 5022 u/L、GPT 20025 u/L、 LDH 7733u/L、血乳酸3.9 凝血功能:凝血酶原时间 31s 部分凝血活酶时间107s 血小板在40000/L左右 肌酶谱:乳酸脱氢酶 22500 u/L 肌酸激酶 20000 u/L 肌酸激酶同工酶 610 u/L,ICU处理: (1)持续肛温监测,降温毯37左右 (2)监测血液动力学,维持有效血液循环 (3)机械通气 (4)镇静:咪唑安定、芬太尼持续泵入 (5)肾衰6小时内给予血液滤过 (6)促进肝功恢复:凯西来、美能、甘利欣 (7)TPN营养支持胃肠道营养,转归: 48小时:循环及内环境基本稳定 肺部通气氧合良好 术后4日:顺利脱离呼吸机、拔管 术后7日:下肢深静脉血栓抗凝 术后14日:生化:GOT 92.6 u/L、GPT 51.7 u/L 凝血功能正常 术后16日:肾功恢复,尿量1050 ml/h 术后17日:体温正常、生命体征稳定,躁 动 (一)原因: 1.疼痛:术毕未及时镇痛,为躁动重要因素,多年轻人 2.低氧血症、高碳酸血症、胃胀气、尿潴留 3.术前、术中用药: (1)东莨菪碱、吩噻嗪、巴比妥(未用麻醉性镇痛药) (2)异丙酚、依托咪酯 (3)氯胺酮噩梦、幻觉等(尤单用) 苯二氮卓类药可减轻或消除 4.脑疾患、精神病史是术后发生谵妄、躁动的危险因素,(二)预防和处理: 1.维持合适的麻醉深度、术后充分镇痛 2.保持充分通气、供氧,维持血流动力学稳定 3.避免不良刺激,保持环境安静 4.减少或即时拔除各种有创性导管和引流管 5.定时变动体位利于改善呼吸功能 避免长时间固定体位的不适 6.定时血气分析,以免低氧血症或二氧化碳潴留 7.防止因躁动引起的自身伤害,必要时适当应用镇静药,急性肺不张 急性肺不张:骤然出现肺段、肺叶或一侧肺的萎陷通气功能丧失 是手术后严重并发症之一,尤多见于全身麻醉之后 大面积肺不张呼吸功能代偿不足严重缺氧而致死 (一)危险因素: 1.病人因素:(1)围手术期病人存在急性呼吸道感染 (2)呼吸道急性或慢性梗阻 (3)慢性气管炎 (4)吸烟 (5)肥胖 (6)老年病人,肺容量小、呼吸肌障碍或受限 (7)中枢性/梗阻性睡眠-呼吸暂停综合征,2.术后危险因素:呼吸道分泌物多,引流或排出不畅; 胸或上腹部大手术; 切口疼痛; 镇痛药应用不当; 应用抑制中枢神经系统药物 (二)发生机制 1.压迫: (1)麻醉呼吸肌张力消失FRC (2)平卧位腹内压增高/腹内容物增大膈肌向头移位 FRC血液从胸腔向腹腔转移压迫性肺不张 2.小气道早期闭合其远侧气体吸收肺泡萎陷、肺不张 (尤其吸纯氧时) 3. PS产生减少、失活、代谢障碍肺泡萎陷,(三)临床表现: 1.小面积肺不张,无明显临床症状或体征,易被忽略 2.急性大面积肺不张气急、咳嗽、发绀, 小水泡音,呼吸音和语颤消失 急性循环功能障碍 (四)预防: 1.术前禁烟23w 2.有急性呼吸道感染的病人,至少应延期手术23w 3.术前有明显危险因素的应延期手术,57天呼吸道治疗 4.慢支、慢阻肺: (1)术前胸部理疗(体位引流、胸壁叩击) 气道梗阻、排痰能力 (2)训练深呼吸和咳嗽增加肺容量,5.保持气道通畅,避免长时间固定潮气量,应定时吹张肺 6.应用空气-O2吸入,避免吸入纯O2 7.术毕尽早清醒,充分恢复自主呼吸,拔管前反复吸痰 8.ICU中定时变换病人体位,鼓励咳嗽和早期离床活动 9.术后减少或避免麻醉镇痛药神经阻滞 EA局麻药 小剂量麻醉镇痛药,(五)处理:消除梗阻原因,预防感染,复张萎陷肺 1.积极鼓励病人咳嗽排痰,或诱导发生呛咳 2. 纤支镜检查,明确梗阻部位、原因,吸痰、取异物 3.明显低氧血症机械通气(FiO20.6) 辅以PEEP(1015cmH2O) 肺泡复张 4.其他:雾化吸入、祛痰药、支气管扩张药、激素等 5.根据痰液细菌培养结果和药敏实验,选用有效的抗生素,张力性气胸 (一)病因: 1.麻醉操作: (1)辅助或控制呼吸时气道压力过高 有先天性缺陷或病变(肺气肿 支扩、肺大泡)肺泡破裂 (2)喉镜和气管插管时损伤咽后壁 (3)臂丛N、肋间N、椎旁N阻滞时伤及胸膜、肺组织 (4)有创性中心静脉监测(颈内或锁骨上、下静脉) 2.手术操作: (1)气管造口术、甲状腺切除术、颈部广泛解剖 (2)肾切除术、腹腔镜手术损伤脏层或壁层胸膜 (3)一侧胸内手术损伤对侧胸膜,没及时发现和修补,(二)临床表现: 1.轻度可无症状 2. 1/5肺组织丧失通气功能呼吸急促困难、发绀、心动过速 3.一侧或两侧肺萎陷V/Q严重失衡极端呼吸困难,大量未氧合 血液掺杂于动脉血内显著发绀和低氧血症 4.患侧胸内高压纵隔推向健侧心脏移位、腔静脉回心血流受阻 CO排血量 严重低血压、休克 5.全麻下首先发现的体征可能是心动过速和低血压,不易与麻醉过 深或低血容量区别;但因受压肺顺应性下降气道阻力 6.血气:PaO2 、PaCO2 7.不立即解除张力性气胸,可在短时间因呼吸循环衰竭而致死,(三)处理: 1.支持呼吸、循环 2. 粗针头患侧锁骨中线第2或第3肋间进行穿刺抽气 3.抽气后仍不缓解或需多次抽气胸腔闭式引流 促进萎陷肺复张 4.应积极预防感染,脑 血 管 意 外 围术期脑血管意外:缺血性-80%,脑血管供血不足或血流太少 出血性-20%,脑实质出血、蛛网膜下腔出血 全麻下脑血管意外,不易及时发现,多麻醉后苏醒延迟、意识障碍,或相关病理部位的功能受损所反映出特殊体征时才引起临床注意和诊断。 (一)缺血性卒中 : 1.病因: (1)动脉粥样硬化:颅外和颅内动脉粥样硬化狭窄、闭塞、或斑块 物质栓塞远端脑血管缺血性脑卒中 (2)心源性栓子:心律失常(房颤)、瓣膜与腔结构异常促进血栓形 成、栓子脱落栓塞脑血管缺血性脑卒中 房颤头数月栓塞危险性最高,第1个月几率可达1/3 (3)血管炎:原发性中枢神经系统动脉炎、感染性血管炎局灶性或 多灶性脑缺血缺血性脑卒中,(4)血液粘稠度:脑血流与血液粘稠度呈负相关 BBC增多症、Hct 50%、血小板增多症血液粘稠 度脑血流 (5)高凝状态:癌症(尤肾上腺癌)、妊娠、产褥期处于高凝状态 纤维蛋白原、凝血异常、血小板聚集脑血流 (6)其他:脂肪栓子、气栓脑血管栓塞和缺血性病变 2.诊断: (1)表现:神经系统症状,取决于被阻血管部位、累及脑组织范围 脑A主干梗阻迅速意识障碍、昏迷 或偏瘫、癫痫、失语和病理性反射 (2)超声心动图、脑影像学(CT、MRl)和脑血管造影术 3.预防: (1)控制血压:高血压是卒中最危险因素,收缩压可能是直接原因 160/95mmHg卒中危险性比正常高4倍术前控制血压 (2)房颤或心脏瓣膜病人心脏科医生会诊,以确定是否抗凝治疗,(二)出血性卒中:颅内出血 1.原因: 动脉瘤、脑血管畸形、高血压性动脉粥样硬化性出 血,全身出血性素质

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