范式(paradigm)的词源以及词的本义.doc

范式（paradigm）的词源以及词的本义“英文paradigm的词源以及词的本义”西方哲学英汉对照辞典(人民出版社)对范式（paradigm）的解释：范式（paradigm）：源自希腊词paradeigma，意指“模范”或“模型”。柏拉图把形式描写为范式即具有相似性的特殊对象的范式，认为人们审视范式是为了获取知识。柏拉图在国家篇里谈到，理想国或许是建立在天国里的范式；在另一篇题为蒂迈欧篇的对话里，形式即范式，具有神性的工匠凭借范式构建了感觉世界。在本世纪，美国哲学家T. 库恩在其经典著作科学革命的结构（1962年）中，使用“范式”一词来表示由诸多概念、假设与方法构成的框架，在此框架中科学共同体的成员从事着他们的研究。当某一范式需要变化或转型时，就会发生一场科学革命。“范式转变”的概念是美国著名科学史、科学哲学家托马斯库恩( Thomas S. Kuhn，1922-1996 )在科学革命的结构中最早提出的 。“范式”的原文是paradigm，来自希腊文，意指“模范”或“模型” 。作者在此基础上用这个词来说明科学理论发展的某种规律性，即某些重大科学成就形成科学发展中的某种模式，因而形成一定观点和方法的框架。其重要性在于：现实的重大变化往往需要概念上的创新与之相适应。如今，范式这一概念被广泛地用来描述一个时代中普遍被接受的一种广义的模型、框架、思维方式或是一种理解现实的体系。在林超然先生主编的现代科学哲学教程中，对范式（paradigm）的论述是这样的：范式（paradigm）一词来自希腊文，用在文法中，表示词形变化如名词变格和动词变位的规则。库恩借用范式一词，是想用来说明他从科学史研究中获得的关于科学发展某种规律性的模式。他认为任何一种常规科学都是一种范式。 在那本使得库恩享誉盛名的The Structure of Scientific Revolutions中，库恩说：I shall henceforth refer to as paradigms, a term that relates closely to normal science. By choosing it, I mean to suggest that somen accepted examples of actual scientific practiceexamples which include law, theory, application, and instrumentation togetherprovide models from which spring particular coherent traditions of scientific research.(p.10)The study of paradigms . is what mainly prepares the student for membership in the particular scientific community with which he will later practice. (p.10-11)Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors in solving a few problems that the group of practioners has come to recognize as acute.(p.23) To discover the relation between rules, paradigms, and normal science, consider first how the historian isolates the paraticular loci of commitment that have just been described as accepted rules. Close historical investigation of a given specialty at a given time discloses a set of recurrent and quasistandard illustrations of various theories in their conceptual, observational, and instrumental applications. These are the communitys paradigms, revealed in its textbooks, lectures, and laboratory exercises. (p.43) Philosophers of science have repeatedly demonstrated that more than one theoretical construction can always be placed upon a given collection of data. History of science indicates that, particularly in the early developmental stages of a new paradigm, it is not even very difficult to invent such alternates. But that invention of alternates is just what scientists seldom undertake except during the pre-paradigm stage of their sciences development and at very special occasions during its subsequent evolution. So long as the tools a paradigm supplies continue to prove capable of solving the problems it defines, science moves fastest and penetrates most deeply through confident employment of those tools. The reason is clear. As in manufacture so in science-retooling is anextravagance to be reserved for the occasion that demands it. The significance of crises is the indication they provide that an occasion for retooling has arrived. (p. 76) The decision to reject one paradigm is always simultaneously the decision to accept another, and the judgment leading to that decision involves the comparis on of both paradigms with nature and with each other. (p. 77) Led by a new paradigm, scientists adopt new instruments and look in new places. Even more important, during revolutions scientists see new and different things when looking with familiar instruments in places they have looked before.(p. 111 ) 在刘放桐老师主编的新编现代西方哲学（人民出版社）中，也有对库恩“范式”理论的专门论述： 库恩试图将“范式”与科学共同体结合起来，把科学史、科学社会学、科学心理学结合起来，把科学的内史和外史结合起来，对科学发展规律作综合考察，这无疑是有意义的探索。也正因为如此，库恩的“范式”概念不仅在西方曾引起热烈的讨论，也得到普遍的承认。 总之，“范式”理论是库恩哲学的创造性所在，也是库恩哲学的核心，是区别于其他哲学的本质内容。库恩为我们打开了一个观察世界的新视角。说到范式，我们不能不提到与之密切相关的另一个重要的概念“范式转换”（paradigm shift）。在论述“范式转换”之前，我们有必要继续考察“范式”这个概念的含义。范式实际上包括了科学共同体所共有的理论假设、研究模式、研究方法、价值标准和形而上学的原则。范式不仅是科学研究的必要条件，而且是学科成熟的标志：只有当一门学科的研究者（至少是一部分研究者）形成了共同的范式，该学科才从前科学时期进入科学时期。 为了澄清对范式概念的理解，库恩写了再论范式（Second Thought on Paradigms）一文，对“范式”这个概念又重新进行了认真反省和考察。此文收录在必要的张力（The essential tension）一书中。 在此文的开篇，库恩说到了读者对科学革命的结构的评论。他说：Challenged to explain the absence of an index, I regularly point out that its most frequently consulted entry would be:paradigm,1-172,passim.Critic, whether sympathetic or not, have been unanimous in underscoring the large number of different senses in which the term is used.Whatever their number, the usages of paradigmin the book divide into two sets which require both different names and separate discussion. One sense of paradigm is global, embracing all the shared commitments of a scientific group; the other isolates a particularly important sort of commitment and is thus a subset of the first.(p.294) 他接着论述说：In the book the term paradigm enters in close proximity, both physical and logical, to the phrase scientific community. A paradigm is that the members of a scientific community, and they alone, share. Conversely, it is their possession of common paradigm that constitutes a scientific community of a group of otherwise disparate men. As empirical generalizations, both those statements can be defended.If the term paradigmis to be successfully explicated, scientific communities must first be recognized as having an independent existence. (p.294-295) 总括库恩对科学范式的种种论述，他所说的范式是指特定的科学共同体从事某一类科学活动所必须遵循的公认的“模型”。它包括共有的世界观、基本理论、范例、方法、仪器、标准等等同科学研究有关的所有东西。它实际上是共同体从事科学活动的共同立场，共同使用的认识工具和手段。 库恩强调研究范式（paradigm）的演进和变迁。他指出，“科学不是事实、理论和方法的简单堆砌，科学的发展也不是知识的简单积累，而是通过范式的不断转换所进行的不断革命的进程。”对于“范式转换”（paradigm shift），西方哲学英汉对照辞典的解释是：传统观点认为，在一个稳定的框架内，科学的经验内容的逐渐增加是累积的。与此相对立，库恩以科学范式的革命性转换，以在规范科学时期内范式所进行的工作，来说明科学的变化。库恩意义上的范式有两个层面。在第一个层面上，它是一组为一个科学共同体在一个社会和体制情境中所共有的成功说明的信念、价值、技术、实践和范例。在第二层面上，范式是常规科学用以解决问题的模型或说明框架。然而，任何给定范式的范围都是有限的。当在一个范式中不能解决的突出问题累积起来，这个科学共同体就面临着危机。作为对危机的反应，一个新的范式将会出现。这个新范式要优于旧范式，因为它能形成新的问题，并能设定程序以解决现存累积的未解决问题。当科学家舍弃旧范式并代之以新范式时，科学革命发生了。因为一个新范式涉及到概念、理论结构及科学实践的根本性转换，新旧范式之间是不可通约的。（不可通约性亦是范式理论中的一个非常重要的概念小屋主人注。）因此科学革命（scientific revolutions）等同于范式转换（paradigm shift）。一个范式为另一个范式所取代，也是在政治和社会发展中所得来的。“What seems to have been involved was the exploitation by genius of perceptual possibilities made available by a medieval paradigm shift.” (Kuhn, The structure of Scientific Revolutions, p.118.)并非题外话：库恩和历史主义：托马斯库恩继卡尔波普尔（Karl Popper，科学哲学中批判理性主义的代表人物）之后，着眼于科学的历史和现状，在科学中引进了科学以外的因素，推动了科学史、科学哲学以及科学社会学等学科的进一步发展。库恩哲学的确立标志着西方科学哲学中“历史主义学派”的兴起。在库恩之后，将历史主义学派推向极端的美国哲学家费耶阿本德（Paul Karl Feyerabend）的“多元方法论”、无政府主义认识论以及他对科学沙文主义的反对在科学哲学界乃至科学界引起了轩然大波。当然那都是后话了。Global English - a Paradigm shift（范式转换）A new age in cross-cultural communications using Global English as the tool.Change has been the one constant in the development of the human race since the beginning. But never has change been so immense as it has been in the past decade. Just think about the massive changes taking place to our environment, technology, communications and economies just to name a few . and so it is now with language, in the form of Global English.Paradigm shifts, where a whole community changes the way they do things, are fast becoming the norm rather than the exception. I have already covered the paradigm shift taking place in education in another Knol, but I now wish to cover the inter-related one talking place in global language and inter-person communications. The message and challenge in both fields is quite clear . be part of the new paradigm or risk being made redundant and irrelevant by holding to tightly to the old.Introduction to Global EnglishAccording to a 2006 research conductedon behalf of the British CouncilbytheappliedlinguistDavid Graddol: A massive increase in the number of people learning English has already begun,and is likely to reach a peak of around 2 billion in the next 1015 years.Other research identifies that English is present on every continent and of the 196 countries of the world, English isused officially or without government sanctionin over 80 of them.The reasons for the spread and growth in the EnglishlanguageI will cover later in this article. By way of introduction, Isimplywish to point out that of the 2 billion plus people on the planet that will soon be speaking English, only 300 million or 15% of them will be native born English speakers like myself.This Knol attempts to follow David Graddolsreasoning where he states thatthere comes a moment where one has to pause and conclude that a new framework is required to understand the events now unfolding before us, to comprehend why they are happening, and to speculate on what might happen next. We need a paradigm shift.David Graddol argues in his book English Next, that we have reached such a moment in relation to the status of Global English, where the world of language has changed and will never again be the same. With so many peoplein so many countrieslearning English for the purpose of communicating with other non-native English speakers, it is not going to be just moreof the same. There is a new model emerging which this Knol attempts to uncover.Listed here are the primary questions that I wish to address in this Knol -What form and competency level of current English will the new learners of English choose to adopt? Am I as an entrepreneur and educator shaping my offer and teaching techniques to meet this massive and evolving market need sodesperatefor information and learning? As a native English speaker wishing to exploit the global opportunities for information and learning, do I need to change my approach in the way that I produce products written in English?Wordle of Global English KnolI should point out that my discoveries here do not point to a time for native English speakers torelaxas winners in the global competition for language supremacy. It is rather an urgent call to action and to up-skill in relearning English as a global communication tool. It is a call to match the bi-lingual qualifications of our global competitors for jobs, trade and customers.The final point I should make is that while I am anabsolutelyfascinatedlearner in the field of Englishlanguage, I am not a scholar nor a professionalacademic. My interest in the topic is purely commercial, because I see a massive change taking place in global language that will have dramatic affects on many kingdoms . including my kingdom of commerce and entrepreneurship.NOTE: Ascholarly articledealingwith similar issues as this topic is provided in a Knol byMichaParadowski, a Linguist, Researcher, Educator from Poland - seeAnti native speaker hegemony.Growth of the English language globallyNeil Reynolds in an articletitledSpread the word: English is unstoppable, publishedin The Globe and Mail, attempts to quantify the growth in global English with this statement - In Mr. Mulcasters 1582, English was spoken by perhaps four million people. In Mr. Adamss 1780, by perhaps 12 million. In Noah Websters 1828, on publication of The American Dictionary of the English Language, by perhaps 50 million. A century later, in H.L. Menckens rambunctious 1920s, on his publication of The American Language, by perhaps 200 million.With two billion now speaking it or learning to speak it, we can credibly imagine a genuine global language. 1Now the 2 billion can be broken down further in the form of Native, Second language and Foreign language speakers. Here is a description of each group and an estimate of their relative numbers.Native - (approx. 300 million) - people who learned English at home with their family when they were young. Typically these speakers come fromUnited States (215 million), United Kingdom (61 million), Canada (18.2 million), Australia (15.5 million), Ireland (3.8 million), South Africa (3.7 million), and New Zealand (3.0 million). Second language - (approx. 200 million) - people who learned English because they live/lived in the country where the language is spoken. Foreign language - (approx 1,500 million) - people who learned/are learning English in a country where English is neither their Native or Official language. (i.e. it is a language that is studied at school or for self-improvement).David Graddol points out that we may be actually witnessing the end of English as a foreign language and the beginning of a whole new global language using English-lite as a start point. Note: The term Official language is applied when a governing body determines that that language will be an acceptable basis of communication within the country/organisation in things like official documents, official meetings, or used in the media. For English this included countries likeFiji, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Uganda.The motives for this spontaneous and global growth in the desire to learn the English language has little to do with thesehundreds of millions ofpeople wanting to imbibe or even appreciate English culture. 2It is rather the fact that it fulfills the need to find a common vehiclefor the people of all countries to connect with each other and to become a world-citizens. So, at a time in history when the people want to and can, through the internet, connect with the world, English just happens to be the tool close at hand that can do the job.Threecenturiesof British colonization coupled with American media exports and geopolitical power since 1945, hasalreadypositioned English as theprominent communication vehicle for many of the worlds inhabitants, particularly in the high-value areas of international business, science, computer technology, the internet and key global diplomatic and transport structures.In these key areas English has already become a world language.But something far more grass roots is happening with the current surge in learning English and is best identified in a speech made by the Prime Minister of UK Tony Blair in 2008 who said the pathway of global communication is a global access to knowledge. Now the internet,with the majority of its content/learning written in English, is it any wonder that the people of the planet are using the English language as the vehicle that bridges across borders and cultures to become a source of unity in communicating with a rapidly changing world.Learning is being delivered to the door of any person on the planet who has access to a computer and a disproportional amount of that learning is in the English language. It is my belief that the people of the planet can see that an understanding of the English language is the key to unlock the learning needed to make a better life for themselves and their communities. Global English coupled with the easy accessability of learning via the internet, willusher in theparadigmshift in both language as well as education, learning and knowledge share. For more on this, see my Knol onOpen Online Leanring - A Paradigm ShiftA “lingua franca”Recent statements have been made by researchers, that English in the21st century, hasnot only become thelingua franca of international business but that it is fast becoming the lingua franca of all global communication. But what do they mean by the term lingua franca?Well, a lingua franca is generic description of a language that is mutually understood by people who have different native languages. It is a term used to describe a language that is used widely outside the country where it is spoken as a native language and is mostly a second/third language for those using it. It is often a basic form of speech with simplified grammar and is commonly associated with trade/business, but sometimes with diplomacy.#1 - Photo Source -The LevantThis Latin term has its origins in Europe in the 14th century and it literally means Frankish tongue or language. This language was an Italian-Provencal jargon or pidgin that was widely used in the Middle Ages. Traders and mariners in the Mediterranean Basin and in particular in the eastern Mediterranean ports (the Levant) and Northern Africa used it extensively. The language was based mostly on Catalan and Italian but later included Spanish and Portuguese elements, especially on the Barbary coast. It also borrowed from French, Greek, Persian, Turkish and Arabic to form its own language set and vocabulary.The name is probably taken from an Arabic custom, dating back to the Crusades, of calling all Europeans including the Crusaders - Franks.TheArabstates in theeastern Mediterraneanused the termFrank to mean Western European (i.e. theGreek noun frangkos means Western European or Roman Catholic). Arabian people also used the term lingua francato describe all Romance languages (those with a Romance lexicon and derived from Latin).Now, where a native language in a single speaker community is known as the “vernacular language”, a lingua franca is know as a “vehicular language.” This is because a vehicular language goes beyond the boundaries of its original community, and is used as a second language for communication between communities in other countries who have no other means of doing so. For example, while English is a vernacular in England, it is used as the vehicular language (or lingua franca) for communication by the citizens of the Philippines, possibly because it has 170 different native languages. A lingua franca can also exist (like it does) in the specialized areas of air-traffic control and maritime communications.Other historic examples of a lingua franca are:Koine which was the lingua franca dialect of ancient Greek at the time of Alexandra the Greatand was widely spoken throughout the eastern Mediterranean area in Roman times. It isstill the official language of the Vatican Aramaic - part of aSemitic family of languages fromSyriawhich played this lingua franca role in Near East/Sout