Chapter One The Human Body An Orientation：第一章人体的取向.doc

The Human Body: An OrientationI. An Overview of Anatomy and PhysiologyII. Levels of OrganizationIII. Maintaining LifeIV. HomeostasisV. The Language of AnatomyOverviewA. Topics of Anatomya. Two complementary branches of sciencea. Anatomy studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one anotherb. Physiology function of the bodys structural machinery, harder to “see”b. Topics in Anatomya. Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy - study of large body structures visible to the naked eyei. Heart, lungs and kidneysb. Regional structures in an areai. Muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves in the legc. Systemic - system by systemi. Cardiovascular system heart, blood vessels, etcd. Surface - how underlying structures relate to overlying skin surfacei. How to draw bloode. Microscopic - small things in the bodyi. Cytology cells in the bodyii. Histology tissuesf. Developmental - changes that occur over a lifespani. Embryology- Development before birthc. Topics in Physiologya. Renal Physiology - study of the kidneysb. Neurophysiology - workings of the nervous systemc. Cardiovascular Physiology - examines the operation of heart and blood vesselsd. Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Functiona. Function reflects structureLevels of Structural OrganizationA. Overview of Levels (fig ) a. Chemicalb. Cellularc. Tissued. Organe. Organ System (fig )f. Organismal level Maintaining LifeA. Necessary Life Functionsa. Important to note that all systems work together (fig )b. Maintaining Boundariesa. Most keep the external environment separate from the internal environmentb. Integumentary system protects from the sun, heat, bacteria, dehydration, etcc. Movementa. All activities promoted by the muscular system with the help of the skeletal systemb. Also the movement of food and waste through the bodyd. Responsiveness (Irritability)a. Ability to sense changes in the environment b. Nervous system is overseer, but all systems are involvede. Digestion - Breaking down food into small molecules to absorbf. Metabolism - means a state if changea. All chemical reactions in body cellsi. Catabolism breaking down substances into simpler building blocksii. Anabolism synthesizing complex cellular structures from simpler substancesiii. Cellular Respiration using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATPg. Excretion - removing wastes; indigestible food, nitrogenous waste (urea), carbon dioxideh. Reproductiona. Cellular reproduction via mitosis b. Organismal reproduction via meiosisi. Growth - increase in size of a body part or an organismB. Survival Needsa. Nutrients - contain chemical substances used for energy & cell buildinga. Plant derived carbohydrates, vitamins, mineralsi. Carbohydrates are the major source of energy fuel for the body cellsb. Animal derived protein and fati. Proteins and fats are used to build cell structuresii. Fats insulate and energy reservesb. Oxygen - reactions that release energy are oxidative, therefore they need oxygen c. Watera. 60-80% of body in waterb. Guarantees the appropriate environment for all reactions to occur d. Appropriate Temperaturea. Controls metabolic rates (98) b. Too low, slows things down; too high, reactions occur to quicklye. Atmospheric Pressurea. Important for breathingb. High altitudes pressure is low, air is thin, can have problems maintaining cellular supportHomeostasisA. Ability to maintain relatively stable internal condition s even though the outside world changes continuouslya. Not a static system, very dynamica. But always within borders of acceptabilityb. Involves all systems working togetherB. Homeostatic Controls Mechanisms a. Communication within the bodyb. Accomplished by nervous system and endocrine systemi. Use electrical impulses and chemical signalsc. Steps in the Process i. Variable - factor of event being regulatedii. Receptor - sensor that monitors the environment and responds to the stimuliiii. Control Center - receives info from the receptor and determines level at which the variable is to be maintainediv. Effector - means for the control centers response to the stimulus 1. Follows pathway set by the control center efferent pathwayv. Homeostasis is restoredd. Negative Feedback Mechanismi. Most controls are negative feedbackii. Home heating system is best example1. Body thermostat is located in the hypothalamusiii. Endocrine system and reflex response also work with this system1. Example of endocrine system (fig )a. High sugar intake leads to product of insulinb. Low sugar leads to production of glucagonsi. Tells liver to release sugare. Positive Feedback Mechanismsi. Changes occur in the same direction as the initial disturbance, causing the variable to deviate further from the original value or rangeii. Can run out of control, so they arent used to monitor daily activitiesC. Homeostatic Imbalancesa. If there is a problem with keeping the balanceb. Mainly caused by disease and agingLanguage of AnatomyA. Anatomical Position and Directional Termsi. Anatomical Position1. Erect body, feet slightly apart, palms forward2. Right and left refer to the body, not the observer ii. Directional Terms (Table )1. Superior (cranial) toward head2. Inferior (caudal) away from the head3. Anterior toward the front4. Posterior toward the back5. Medial toward the midline6. Lateral away from the midline7. Intermediate between medial and lateral8. Proximal closer to trunk9. Distal farther from trunk10. Superficial toward the surface11. Deep away from the surfaceB. Regional Terms (fig )i. Axial head, neck, trunkii. Appendicular - appendagesC. Body Plans and Sections (fig )i. Sagittal vertical plane dividing body into left and right1. Median (Midsagittal) on midline2. Parasagittal offset from midlineii. Frontal lie vertically, divide body into anterior and posterior1. Also called the coronal planeiii. Transverse horizontal plane, divides body into superior and inferior parts1. Also called cross sections2. Oblique sections are diagonally between horizontal and vertical planesD. Body Cavities and Membranes i. Cavities (fig )1. Dorsal 2 partsa. Protects the nervous systemb. Cranial cavity skull to encase the brainc. Vertebral cavity (spinal) to protect spinal cord2. Ventral 2 partsa. Viscera (visceral organs) all housed in the ventral cavityb. Thoracic 2 partsi. Surrounded by the ribs & muscles of the chestii. Pleural cavity - lungsiii. Mediastinum1. Superior mediastinum trachea, esophagus2. Pericardia cavity encloses the heartc. Abdominopelvic 2 partsi. Separated by the diaphragm (muscle)ii. Abdominal cavity1. Contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, other organsiii. Pelvic Cavity1. Within the bony pelvis2. Contains the bladder, the reproductive organs & the rectumii. Membranes of the Ventral Body Cavities1. Serosa very thin double-layered membrane (fig 1.10)a. Parietal serosa - Part that lines the cavity wallsb. Visceral serosa lines the organs in the cavityc. Serous fluid keeps the area between the layers d. Layers are named for the organ/area they protecti. Parietal pericardium lines pericardial cavityiii. Other Body Cavities1. Oral and digestive cavities starts with mouth, teeth and tongue, includes all the digestive organs to anus2. Nasal Cavity within and posterior to the nose3. Orbital Cavity houses the eyes in the skull4. Middle ear cavities medial to eardrum, contains bones to transmit vibrations5. Synovial cavities joint cavities, around elbow and kneea. Have lubricant to reduce frictionE. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants (fig 1.11)i. Regions used by regional anatomists1. Umblical region2. Epigastric region3. Hypogastric region4. Right and left iliac (inguinal) region5. Right and left lumbar region6. Right and left hypochondriac regionii. Quadrants used by medical personnel1. Right Upper2. Left Upper3. Right Lower4. Left Lower_Study QuestionsAnatomy and Physiology- What does each study cover? Be sure you can give examplesLevels of Organization - What are they? How do they relate to each otherMaintaining Life - What are the main functions? Survival needs?- What is Metabolism? Whats the difference between anabolism & catabolism?Homeostasis - What is homeostasis? What are the mechanisms for control? - What are the reasons for aging?Language of Anatomy- Use the terms in the appropriate manner- Be able to identify the regions, and determine the organs you would find it them- What does each cavity protect? Why does it make sense to have cavities?- Try to use the organs to help the regions make senseBody Planes and Orientation- Learn the terms!- Make up sentences using the word to describe the regions & partsLab 1 fig.s 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, 1.7 (4 quadrants only), 1.8Lab 2 know the major systems, what organs they contain and where they are on a torso modelModels: torsosMicroscopes- Know the parts (fig 3.1), be sure you remember the equations!- Be able to calculate total magnification & explain how it affects field of view?ChemistryBasic ChemistryI. Matter and EnergyII. Composition of Matter: Atoms and ElementsIII. Molecules and MixturesIV. Chemical BondsV. Chemical ReactionsBiochemistryI. Inorganic CompoundsII. Organic CompoundsBasic ChemistryMatter and EnergyA. Mattera. Anything that occupies space and has massb. Mass is the amount of matter in the objecta. Weight varies with gravity b. Weigh less on a mountaintop, less gravityc. Three States of Mattera. Solid has definite shape and volume (bones and teeth) b. Liquid definite volume, variable shape (blood plasma)c. Gaseous states Neither shape or volume (air)B. Energya. The capacity to do work, or to put matter into motiona. The more work do, the more energy requiredb. Two Types of Energya. Kinetic energy in action (battery in a toy being used)b. Potential stored energy, inactive energy (battery in a toy not being used)c. Forms of Energya. Chemical Energy - form stored in the bonds of chemical substancesi. When the bonds rearrange, energy is released (Potential Kinetic)ii. Ex: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)1. How we store energy in our bodies2. The breaking of these bonds fuel all our systemsb. Electrical Energy - movement of charged particlesi. Ions are charged and move across cell membranesii. Nerve Impulses electrical current used by the nervous system to transmit messages from one part of the body to anotherc. Mechanical Energy - directly involved in moving matterd. Radiant Energy (Electromagnetic energy)i. Electromagnetic spectrum (talk about more when we get to vision)d. All energy transformations release heat, even in the bodyAtoms and ElementsA. Elementsa. All matter is composed of fundamental substancesb. Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methodsc. Four Elements make up the majority of body weight (96.1%; Table )a. Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogend. 112 are known, only 92 exist in nature, they rest are made in a particle acceleratora. Periodic Table lists all known elements (Appendix D)e. Atoms - building block of elements, tinya. Physical properties - detectable (smell, size, texture) or measurable (boiling, freezing point)b. Chemical properties - Way atom reacts to other atoms (bonding behavior)f. Atomic Symbol - one or two letter symbol (shorthand)a. Usually the first letter of the name of the element (Latin sodium natrium Na)B. Atomic Structurea. Not indivisible as name implies (Greek)b. Consists of a. Nucleus: protons (+) & neutrons (no charge)i. Tightly bound togetherii. Overall its positively chargediii. Both have same mass 1 atomic mass unitb. Electrons that orbit the nucleusi. Negative charge, very small mass ii. Number of electrons have to equal number of protons for the atom to carry no chargec. Planetary Model (Fig )a. Planetary is a simplified model of atomb. Electrons dont really travel in a ring, travel in orbitals or regions (fig )i. Electron Cloud area that the electron is likely to be foundC. Identifying Elementsa. All elements have a different number of protons, neutrons and electronsb. Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium (fig )a. Hydrogen - One Proton One Electronb. Helium 2 of each; Lithium 3 of eachc. We classify elements based on atomic number, atomic mass and atomic weightd. Atomic Numbera. Number of protons in the nucleusb. Also tells you how many electrons it has to (Hydrogen 1)e. Mass Number and Isotopesa. Mass Number the sum of the protons and neutronsi. Hydrogen 1; Helium 2 protons, 2 neutrons 4 (4/2 He)ii. Mass number atomic number = number of neutronsb. Isotopes (fig ) - Same number of protons, different number of neutronsf. Atomic Weighta. Average of the relative weights of all isotopes found in natureb. Equal to mass number of the most abundant isotopeD. Radioisotopesa. Isotopes that decay to stable forms because they are heavy and unstablea. Radioactivity process of decayb. Dense nuclear particles are composed of even smaller particles (quarks) that associate in one way to form protons and another way to form neutronsa. Bonds between quarks is less effective in heavy isotopesc. Half-life the time needed to loss half of its activityd. Used in diagnosis of damaged and cancerous tissuesMolecules and MixturesA. Molecules and Compoundsa. Combination of atoms held together by chemical bondsb. Compounds two different atoms bound together to form a moleculeB. Mixturesa. Solutions homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids or solidsi. Two parts1. Solvent dissolving medium (usually a liquid (water is the universal solvent)2. Solute whats being dissolvedb. Concentrations of Solutionsi. Percent tells you how much solute there is in the solutionii. Morality moles per liter (M)1. Mole equal to its atomic weight or molecular weight (sum of weights) in grams2. Add up the atomic weight or each atom X the number of atoms of each3. One molar solution = total grams in 1 liter of solution4. Avogadros number 6.02 x 1023 molecules of substance5. Same number of molecules for each mole, regardless of atomc. Colloids - emulsions, heat erogenous mixturesi. Usually gel-like mixtures, particles are larger than those in watery (true) solutionsii. Cytosol inside the celld. Suspensionsi. Heterogeneous mixtures with large often visible solutes that tend to settle outii. Blood will separate into plasma, platelets, WBCs and RBCsC. Distinguishing Mixtures from Compoundsa. No bonding occurs in a mixture, just physically intermixedb. Components can separate by physical means (straining, filtering, evaporation, etcc. Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous Homogeneous any sample of the mixture will be exactly the same Heterogeneous substance varies in make up from place to placeChemical BondsA. How are molecules held together?a. Electrons form a cloud around the nucleus of an atom = electron shellb. Number of electron shells occupied in a given atom depends on # of e atom hasi. Each shell contains 1+ orbitalii. Each shell represents a different level of energyc. Potential Energy = depends on the energy level the bond occupiesd. Valence Shell = used specifically to indicate an atoms outermost energy level containing the electrons that are chemically reactivei. Shell 1 = 2 eii. Shells 2+ = 8 eB. Types of Bonds a. Ionic (fig ) - Forms an ioni. Anion gains an electron (-)ii. Cation loses an electron (+)b. Most are salts, crystalsc. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)b. Covalent (fig ) - Share electrons & share an orbitala. Often forms gasesb. Polar - Positive and Negative sides to the molecule due to shifts in size, electric charge, etc c. Nonpolar - Electrically balancedc. Hydrogen (fig ) a. Too weak to bind atoms, just attraction between a positive end of a polar covalent bond and a negative endChemical ReactionsA. Reactions occur whenever chemical bonds are formed, rearranged or brokena. Written as Chemical Equationsa. H + H = H2or4H + C = CH4i. Subscript = atoms that are bondedii. Prefix = atoms that are not bondedb. Reactants - # or kind or reacting substancesc. Products = proportions of reactants after reactionB. Patterns of Chemical Reactionsa. Three patternsb. Synthesis (combination) A + B = ABa. Basis for constructive (or anabolic) activities like building cellsc. Decomposition AB = A + Ba. Molecule is broken into smaller parts or constituent atomsb. Underlie catabolic or degradative activitiesd. Exchange of reactions (displacement) AB + C = A + BCa. Oxidation Reduction Reactions (Red-Ox) i. Reactant that is losing the electron (donor) is Oxidized ii. Reactant that is gaining the electron (acceptor) is ReducedC. Energy Flow in Chemical Reactionsa. Exergonic release energyb. Endergonic energy absorbingD. Reversibility of Reactionsa. Some reactions can go either way said to be in a state of Chemical Equilibriumb. Shown by double directional arrowsE. Four Factors that Influence Rate of Reactiona. Temperatureb. Particle Sizec. Concentrationd. CatalystsBiochemistryA. What is biochemistry?a. The study of the chemical compos