心理学部分名词解释汇总.docx

1单眼线索Monocular cues (单眼线索)Our brain also uses information from the stimulus that does not involve our use of both eyes视空间知觉的线索包括单眼线索和双眼线索。单眼线索主要强调视觉刺激本身的特点，双眼线索则强调双眼的协调活动所产生的反馈信息的作用。单凭一只眼睛即可利用单眼线索（monocular cue）而相当好地感知深度，艺术家们特别擅长利用单眼线索制造作品中的深度等空间关系。单眼线索很多，其中主要的有如下几种。（1）对象的相对大小（2）遮挡(occlusion）（3）质地梯度（4）明亮和阴影（5）线条透视（6）空气透视（7）运动视差（8）眼睛的调节2知觉解释1)Is perception innate or acquired?Restored Vision (视觉恢复)Figure-ground InbornShape, form, depth, motion perceptionexperienceSensory Deprivation (感觉剥夺)Conclusion: There is a critical period shortly after birth when certain stimulation must take place for normal sensory and perceptual development.2)How flexible is our perceptual system once it is formed?Perceptual adaptation (知觉适应): adjustment in perception in correspondence to changed visual input.Distorted goggles experiments (变形眼镜实验)3知觉定势Perceptual Set (知觉定势)Our experiences, assumptions, and expectations (i.e., learned schema) may give us a mental readiness to perceive things in a certain way. 知觉定势是由过去经验和环境中事物之间的关系而产生的对感知世界的一种知觉启动. ：因为以前的经验和知觉的影响，而产生的对以后事情发生是的一定模式的反映思维与语言4思维的定义mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information思维（或认知），是所有与信息加工，理解，记忆和交流相关联的心理活动。5思维的三要素1）心理表象 Mental Images (mental representations of a previously stored sensory experience, including visual, auditory, etc.) 2）概念(Concepts)A mental grouping of persons, places, ideas, events, or objects that share common properties Priming：When one concept is activated, others nearby in the network are primed 3）语言Language(a form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules)6问题解决策略1）Trial & error：试错法，尝试错误：一种通过尝试各式各样的方法或理论直到错误被充分地减少或杜绝从而达到正确的解决方法或令人满意的结果的方法 2）Algorithm：A systematic, step-by-step problem-solving strategy, guaranteed to provide a solution算法：通过按部就班的程序使结果得以论证或使问题得以解决3）Heuristic：A rule of thumb that allows one to make judgments that are quick but often in error直觉：采取简单的策略解决问题4）Insight 顿悟：突然的灵感7问题解决障碍1)思维定势Mental Sets(persistence in using strategies that have worked in the past) 2)功能定势:指人常常带有一种倾向,即总以为认知对象的功能和作用是固定的,一成不变的.Functional Fixedness(thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way) 3)证实偏见：问题解决中的一种主要障碍，即倾向于搜集可以证实自己观点的信息资料Confirmation Bias(preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence)4）信念保持Belief Perseverance（The tendency to cling to beliefs even after they have been discredited）5）直觉Heuristics代表性直觉：一句描述特定圆形的代表成都来判断事物的相似性Representativeness Heuristicestimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match (or represent) a previous prototype易得性直觉：依据记忆所提供的信息的可用性来判断事物Availability Heuristic(judging the likelihood of an event based on how readily availableother instances are in memory)8语言三要素1）语声Phoneme(smallest unit of speech or sound)2）语意Morpheme(smallest meaningful unit of language)3）语法Grammar(rules specifying how phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases should be combined to express thoughts （Syntax(rules for word order) Semantics(system of using words to create meaning)）9对话距离定义：Distances people try to keep between themselves and others at different occasions.Four Zones of Interaction：1st Zone: Intimate Distance2nd Zone: Personal Distance3rd Zone: Social Distance4th Zone: Public Distance10非言语行为非语言交际行为是指语言范畴以外的行为表现形式主要包括目光控制、手势、身体动作、头部动作、面部表情、身体距离、沉默等等.分类：the words we speak or things we do.Adaptors/manipulators are nonverbal behaviors we engage in to help our bodies adapt to the environment around us, occur as a reaction to an individuals physical or psychological state.Emblems are nonverbal behaviors that convey a message by themselves.Facial expression for feelings.Regulators are nonverbal behaviors we engage in to regulate the flow of speech during a conversation,e.g., Head nods, eye contact, postural shifts, back channel signals, etc8语言获取 .BirthCooing, crying, gurgling.4-6 monthsBabbling咿呀语期.12 monthsFirst words单词语期.2 yrs & up双词语期Telegraphic speech电报式语言Overextension外延过宽（婴幼)在概念形成过程中普遍存在的一种言语现象。他们受知识经验水平限制，思维概括水平不高，对概念内涵认识不清，缩小了概念内涵的范围，从而在 概念形成时导致外延过宽，如把苹 也当作“蔬菜”。这种现象在婴儿身上特别常见，随年龄的增长、知识经验的增加及抽象概括能力的提高，逐渐消失，为科学概念所代替。帮助儿童克服外延过宽的方法是丰富儿童的词汇，多进行各种事物之间的比较，使他们逐渐能区分概念与概念之间的异同。）No one disputes the stages of language developmentThere are two main questions in terms of what it all meansIs language acquisition a product of nature or nurtureSkinner vs. Chomsky.Skinner: Children learn language the way animals learn mazes.Chomsky: The brain is hard-wired for learning lang.Critical period.During the first few years of life, we are most receptive to language learning.What comes first thought or language?Both: sometimes children use words to communicate what they already know and sometimes they form concepts to fit the words they hear9双语思维个体的脑Bilingual Individuals Brain (Kim, Relkin, & Lee, 1997).Late bilinguals: exposed to a second language in early adulthood, acquired conversational fluency.Early bilinguals: exposed to two languages during infancy.Internal sentence-generation task: to describe events that occurred during a specified period of the previous day (morning, afternoon, night .Bilinguals who learned their second language later in life, one part of the brain is active when they hear their second language and another when they hear their native language (both in Brocas area).Bilinguals who learned the second language early in life showed activation in the same part of the brain, regardless of whether they were hearing their second language or their native one.10语言与思维Sapir-Whorf hypothesis1）Language influences peoples perception of the world.“Weak version”: Linguistic relativity语言相对论: Lexical and syntactic differences are accompanied by non-linguistic cognitive differences. (I.e., one term vs. two),Thus Cultural differences in thinking are accompanied by linguistic differences between cultures.“Strong version”: Linguistic determinism语言决定论: Cultural thinking differences were direct results of differences in their languages.2）Language, counting & arithmetic .The greater regularity of number names in Chinese, Japanese and Korean as compared to English or French facilitates the learning of counting behavior beyond 10 in those languages.Another advantage is earlier mastery of place value (understanding that in # 23 there are 2 tens and 3 ones)3）Language and counterfactual reasoningCounterfactual reasoning: Reasoning about a hypothetical situationEnglish has a special verb form (called the subjunctive)Chinese has no subjunctive form to explicitly mark hypothetical statements11 Spearman的G因子(1904)Proposed that general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilitiesFactor analysis.A statistical technique used to identify clusters of test items that correlate with another.Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities7 factors which correlate but not enough to represent 1 underlying factor.Verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility (math), associative memory, perceptual speed for stimulus recognition, reasoning, and spatial visualization12 Sternberg三重智力理论智力指自动信息加工和产生适合于新情况的行为的心理能量，包括元成分，操作成分和知识获得成分。1）情境智力Contextual Intelligence (实践智力Practical Intelligence):.“Street smarts”.适应生活环境的能力2）成分智力Componential Intelligence (分析智力Analytical Intelligence):.执行控制成分Executive Control.元成分Basic mental processes.心理操作成分Elements of Componential Intelligence measured by traditional IQ tests3）经验智力Experiential Intelligence (创造智力Creative Intelligence).Performance varies based on the novelty of a task.Ones experiences within a culture lead to differential performance.Reflects the ability to cope flexibly and creatively with problems13 Gardner多重智力理论Frames of MindThere are seven types of intelligence.Linguistic: verbal aptitude.Logical-mathematical: mathematical aptitude.Spatial: ability to visualize objects.Musical: ability to appreciate the tonal qualities of sound, compose, and play.Bodily-kinesthetic: ability to control movement.Interpersonal: ability to understand people.Intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself14 Galton研究Believed that intelligence was inheritedBased intelligence on:.Muscular strength.Size of your head.Speed at reacting to signals.Your ability to detect slight differencesGalton爵士认为智力依赖于敏锐的感觉能力。他认为所有引起我们注意的信息都要经过感觉，感觉越敏锐，我们的判断和智力作用的范围就越大。15 比奈西蒙量表1905年，法国的Binet(比奈)和Simon(西蒙)编制了第一个科学的智力测验1905年比奈-西蒙量表。.是由于社会需要而产生：法国义务教育法的颁布要求所有孩子都有接受教育的权利。但智力滞后儿童需鉴别出来单独教育。是智力测验中运用广泛、影响较大的一种工具和技术。有30个由易到难排列的项目，以完成的题目数量来确定智力的高低16 Turnman智商的概念斯坦福大学推孟教授于1916年修订的斯坦福一比内智力量表最负盛名，史称1916年量表。此量表对比内一西蒙智力量表作了许多修改，增加了近三分之一的新题，修改了部分原有题目和部分测题的年龄水平。并在1916年的量表中，首次引人了智力商数的概念，以IQ作为比较人聪明程度的相对指标。智商的计算intelligence quotientIQ =mental age x 100/chronological age.This doesnt work for adults & was adjusted17 陆军甲种乙种测验1917年，美国心理学会主席叶克斯和戈达德、桑代克和推孟等著名心理学家都到军中服务，目的是使心理学有助于增进军队的效率。.他们提出用团体智力测验来选择士兵，以便迅速确定新兵的才能，把他们分配到适当的岗位上。1）陆军甲种测验.在此之前，推孟的研究生欧提斯巳提出了将斯坦福一比内量表改成纸笔测验形式的设想。于是将其应用于军队，编制了陆军甲种测验。此后，又编制了适用于母语为非英语被试和文盲被试的陆军乙种测验。这两个测验在第一次世界大战中曾施测了近200万名美国新兵。.用智力测验来筛选士兵对战争的胜利起了很大作用，此次美国新兵训练时间之短，战斗力之强，都出乎一般军事家预料之外，可见这场耗资巨大的测验工作是没有虚费的。2）陆军乙种测验.陆军乙种测验（非文字测验）的各个分测验略加列举如下:迷津测验；立方体分析测验;数列测验(类似填数测验);译码测验;数目校对测验(473473，58215821前者两数目是相同的，后者两数目是不同的，要求被试对比指明);图画补缺测验；几何形分析测验。18 瑞文渐进测验 瑞文渐进测验(Raven Progressive Matrices)，简称为瑞文测验，是由英国心理学家瑞文(JCRaven)于1938年设计的一种非文字智力测验。由于该测验是非文字的，较少受到知识水平或受教育程度的影响，努力做到公平，且不受语言限制，故心理学家们尤其喜欢采用这个测验作为跨文化研究的工具。瑞文推理侧脸的理论假设源于斯皮尔曼的智力一般因素理论。瑞文认为，非言语的图形推理测验则是对推断性能力的最佳测量。理论：瑞文推理侧脸的理论假设源于斯皮尔曼的智力一般因素理论。瑞文将智力G因素划分为两种相互独立的能力，一种称再生性能力，表明个体经过教育之后达到的水平；一种称推断性能力，表明个体不受教育影响的理性判断能力。瑞文认为，词汇测验是对再生性能力的最有效测量，而非言语的图形推理测验则是对推断性能力的最佳测量。19 智力测验的问题.标准化StandardizationThe procedure by which existing norms are used to interpret an individuals test score传统智力测验的若干问题.（1）性别差异。已有多年的研究历史。研究者们通常会发现男女两性在智力上的差别在统计上并不显著，即整体而言智力很可能并不存在性别差异。具体到对智力的