水力学实验报告思考题答案想你所要.doc

relationship between Government and business. The two sessions, General Secretary of Pro, clear the word succinctly summarized the new relationship between Government and business, as pure politics, reshaping the political relationship specified in the direction. District leaders in handling political and business relations, engage in trading power for money, and finally stumbled, we a lesson, always keep in mind that Pro, clean practicing Pro, clear. Pro is to open a sincere engagement with private enterprise to help solve practical difficulties; Clear is to clarify the Division of power, exercised in accordance with, private entrepreneurs with innocent purity, not abusing power for personal gain, not to engage in trading power for money. Third, in order to maintain fairness and justice. Fairness and justice is the lifeline of the rule of law, is the best development environment. Currently, lax law enforcement and the judicial sector in our region also exist to varying degrees, law enforcement departments and individual window units power for personal gains and bribes, thick friends, relations, human cases, money cases in which seriously infringe on the legitimate rights and interests of enterprises and people. Especially some law enforcement and inspection for profit purposes, deliberately looking for corporate loopholes, found directly under the ticket does not give business improvement opportunities. We recruit a company doesnt easily, cultivating a business more difficult, never for personal gain, systematic harassment, card, last checked to check to get the enterprise collapsed. To guarantee the legitimate rights and interests. Always proceed from the overall situation of reform and development of services, fully consider the characteristics of production and management in non-public enterprises and social benefits, an accurate grasp of legal limits, protect the enthusiasm of entrepreneurs and practitioners in innovation and entrepreneurship, enhancing expectations and confidence. To promote strict enforcement. Strengthening law enforcement procedures, improve law enforcement performance evaluation, strengthening the supervision of law enforcement, exploration and practice of risk control mechanism of law enforcement to further standardize the social security, urban management, road traffic administrative law enforcement, effectively free, extensive law-enforcement and lax enforcement of law enforcement and other issues. To uphold justice. Justice is the last line of Defense to safeguard fairness and justice, to unequivocally support the courts and procuratorates independently exercise level . Judicial activities were rampant, must not be allowed to run, favors, money, must not be allowed to knowingly violate the miscarriage, violations of the legitimate rights and interests of the masses must not be allowed to abuse of power, to make forest mass can be felt in every judicial cases in equity and justice. Four to deepen grass-roots governance according to lawchain do long, and put scale big. To serve the development of enterprises. Duocuo simultaneously improving service efficiency, build better public services platform, enhance work efficiency, initiative to help businesses solve the project procedures, financing loans, issues such as land-use approval, reduce operating costs, business travel light and enhance the confidence to overcome all kinds of difficulties and the Foundation, real entrepreneurial passion play entrepreneurship, enhance the internal vitality and creativity. SI XING an construction, promoting the rule of law, tries to make the transformation of forest development XI General Secretary stressed, to reinvigorate Northeast China, optimized development environment is very important. Environment of rule of law most gather Moss, the most conducive to development. Improving the leading cadres using the method of thought and the rule of law Administration work, problem-solving, the ability to promote the development, is the key to promoting the rule of law. The law may affect the efficiency of out of the path of development will be more smooth, won development gains will be sustained, and end with greater efficiency. Leading cadres at all levels should take the lead in respect of law law, abide by, and actively foster Socialist culture, actively promoting the field of multi-level governance according to law, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find law, solve the problem by law, in accordance with the law prevail. XXX administration by law of leading cadres do not exist on the rule of law, law enforcement, casual, and vow not to investors, the new scores and other turmoil. These important expositions on my district create good development environment with highly targeted and guidance, especially the General Secretary pointed out that the chaos in my area also exists to varying degrees, some even quite serious. Leading cadres at all levels must improve the development environment of rule of law as a fundamental task, adhere to the problem oriented, solid and solve the problems in the construction of rule of law, to rule the new effect for development environment improvements. To hold key minority. Leaders of this group, although few in number, but the effect is critical. If a local leaders take the lead right according to law, in accordance with the law, the local CPPCC fresh, pragmatic and efficient development environment. Conversely, if a local leaders of ignoring the law, impunity, not only the political environment will be destroyed, will have serious implications for the development environment. Now, some leading cadres lack of awareness on the importance of learning, that learn or not does not matter. Think efficiency is too low too much, act according to the procedure, than an executive order getting along with. In dealing with complex issues, often speak of settling and done; on the issue of handling letters and visits, like to spend money and buy stop and stable, but disregard the law administration, in accordance with the law, the rule实验二 不可压缩流体恒定流能量方程（伯诺利方程）实验成果分析及讨论1.测压管水头线和总水头线的变化趋势有何不同？为什么？测压管水头线（P-P）沿程可升可降，线坡JP可正可负。而总水头线（E-E）沿程只降不升，线坡J恒为正，即J0。这是因为水在流动过程中，依据一定边界条件，动能和势能可相互转换。测点5至测点7，管收缩，部分势能转换成动能，测压管水头线降低，Jp0。测点7至测点9，管渐扩，部分动能又转换成势能，测压管水头线升高，JP0，故E2恒小于E1，（E-E）线不可能回升。(E-E) 线下降的坡度越大，即J越大，表明单位流程上的水头损失越大，如图2.3的渐扩段和阀门等处，表明有较大的局部水头损失存在。2.流量增加，测压管水头线有何变化？为什么？有 如 下 二 个 变 化 ：（1）流量增加，测压管水头线（P-P）总降落趋势更显著。这是因为测压管水头，任一断面起始时的总水头E及管道过流断面面积A为定值时，Q增大，就增大，则必减小。而且随流量的增加阻力损失亦增大，管道任一过水断面上的总水头E相应减小，故的减小更加显著。（2）测压管水头线（P-P）的起落变化更为显著。因为对于两个不同直径的相应过水断面有式中为两个断面之间的损失系数。管中水流为紊流时，接近于常数，又管道断面为定值，故Q增大，H亦增大，（P-P）线的起落变化就更为显著。3.测点2、3和测点10、11的测压管读数分别说明了什么问题？测点2、3位于均匀流断面（图2.2），测点高差0.7cm，HP=均为37.1cm（偶有毛细影响相差0.1mm），表明均匀流同断面上，其动水压强按静水压强规律分布。测点10、11在弯管的急变流断面上，测压管水头差为7.3cm，表明急变流断面上离心惯性力对测压管水头影响很大。由于能量方程推导时的限制条件之一是“质量力只有重力”，而在急变流断面上其质量力，除重力外，尚有离心惯性力，故急变流断面不能选作能量方程的计算断面。在绘制总水头线时，测点10、11应舍弃。4.试问避免喉管（测点7）处形成真空有哪几种技术措施？分析改变作用水头（如抬高或降低水箱的水位）对喉管压强的影响情况。下述几点措施有利于避免喉管（测点7）处真空的形成：（1）减小流量，（2）增大喉管管径，（3）降低相应管线的安装高程，（4）改变水箱中的液位高度。显然（1）、（2）、（3）都有利于阻止喉管真空的出现，尤其（3）更具有工程实用意义。因为若管系落差不变，单单降低管线位置往往就可完全避免真空。例如可在水箱出口接一下垂90弯管，后接水平段，将喉管的高程降至基准高程00，比位能降至零，比压能p/得以增大（Z），从而可能避免点7处的真空。至于措施（4）其增压效果是有条件的，现分析如下：当作用水头增大h时，测点7断面上值可用能量方程求得。取基准面及计算断面1、2、3，计算点选在管轴线上（以下水柱单位均为cm）。于是由断面1、2的能量方程（取a2=a3=1）有 (1)因hw1-2可表示成此处c1.2是管段1-2总水头损失系数，式中e、s分别为进口和渐缩局部损失系数。又由连续性方程有故式（1）可变为 (2)式中可由断面1、3能量方程求得，即 (3)由此得 (4)代入式( 2)有(Z2+P2/)随h递增还是递减，可由(Z2+P2/)加以判别。因 (5)若1-(d3/d2)4+c1.2/(1+c1.3)0，则断面2上的(Z+p/) 随h同步递增。反之，则递减。文丘里实验为递减情况，可供空化管设计参考。在实验报告解答中，d3/d2=1.37/1，Z1=50，Z3=-10，而当h=0时，实验的(Z2+P2/)=6，将各值代入式(2)、(3)，可得该管道阻力系数分别为c1.2=1.5，c1.3=5.37。再将其代入式(5)得表明本实验管道喉管的测压管水头随水箱水位同步升高。但因(Z2+P2/)接近于零，故水箱水位的升高对提高喉管的压强（减小负压）效果不显著。变水头实验可证明该结论正确。5.由毕托管测量显示的总水头线与实测绘制的总水头线一般都有差异，试分析其原因。与毕托管相连通的测压管有1、6、8、12、14、16和18管，称总压管。总压管液面的连续即为毕托管测量显示的总水头线，其中包含点流速水头。而实际测绘的总水头是以实测的值加断面平均流速水头v2/2g绘制的。据经验资料，对于园管紊流，只有在离管壁约0.12d的位置，其点流速方能代表该断面的平均流速。由于本实验毕托管的探头通常布设在管轴附近，其点流速水头大于断面平均流速水头，所以由毕托管测量显示的总水头线，一般比实际测绘的总水线偏高。因此，本实验由1、6、8、12、14、16和18管所显示的总水头线一般仅供定性分析与讨论，只有按实验原理与方法测绘总水头线才更准确。实验四 毕托管测速实验实验分析与讨论1.利用测压管测量点压强时，为什么要排气？怎样检验排净与否？毕托管、测压管及其连通管只有充满被测液体，即满足连续条件，才有可能测得真值，否则如果其中夹有气柱，就会使测压失真，从而造成误差。误差值与气柱高度和其位置有关。对于非堵塞性气泡，虽不产生误差，但若不排除，实验过程中很可能变成堵塞性气柱而影响量测精度。检验的方法是毕托管置于静水中，检查分别与毕托管全压孔及静压孔相连通的两根测压管液面是否齐平。如果气体已排净，不管怎样抖动塑料连通管，两测管液面恒齐平。2.毕托管的动压头h和管嘴上、下游水位差H之间的大关系怎样？为什么？由于 且 即 一般毕托管校正系数c=11（与仪器制作精度有关）。喇叭型进口的管嘴出流，其中心点的点流速系数=0.9961。所以h10，则6.为什么在光、声、电技术高度发展的今天，仍然常用毕托管这一传统的流体测速仪器？毕托管测速原理是能量守恒定律，容易理解。而毕托管经长期应用，不断改进，已十分完善 。具有结构简单，使用方便，测量精度高，稳定性好等优点。因而被广泛应用于液、气流的测量（其测量气体的流速可达60m/s）。光、声、电的测速技术及其相关仪器，虽具有瞬时性，灵敏、精度高以及自动化记录等诸多优点，有些优点毕托管是无法达到的。但往往因其机构复杂，使用约束条件多及价格昂贵等因素，从而在应用上受到限制。尤其是传感器与电器在信号接收与放大处理过程中，有否失真，或者随使用时间的长短，环境温度的改变是否飘移等，难以直观判断。致使可靠度难以把握，因而所有光、声、电测速仪器，包括激光测速仪都不得不用专门装置定期率定（有时是利用毕托管作率定）。可以认为至今毕托管测速仍然是最可信，最经济可靠而简便的测速方法。实验六 文丘里流量计实验实验分析与讨论本实验中，影响文丘里管流量系数大小的因素有哪些？哪个因素最敏感？对d2=0.7cm的管道而言，若因加工精度影响，误将（d20.01）cm值取代上述d2值时，本实验在最大流量下的值将变为多少？由式 可见本实验（水为流体）的值大小与Q、d1、d2、h有关。其中d1、d2影响最敏感。本实验中若文氏管d1 =1.4cm，d2=0.71cm，通常在切削加工中d1比d2测量方便，容易掌握好精度，d2不易测量准确，从而不可避免的要引起实验误差。例如当最大流量时值为0.976，若d2的误差为0.01cm，那么值将变为1.006，显然不合理。为什么计算流量Q与实际流量Q不相等？因为计算流量Q是在不考虑水头损失情况下，即按理想液体推导的，而实际流体存在粘性必引起阻力损失，从而减小过流能力，QQ，即1.0。试证气水多管压差计（图6.4）有下列关系：如图6. 4所述，试应用量纲分析法，阐明文丘里流量计的水力特性。运用量纲分析法得到文丘里流量计的流量表达式，然后结合实验成果，便可进一步搞清流量计的量测特性。对于平置文丘里管，影响1的因素有：文氏管进口直径d1，喉径d2、流体的密度、动力粘滞系数及两个断面间的压强差P。根据定理有从中选取三个基本量，分别为：共有6个物理量，有3个基本物理量，可得3个无量纲数，分别为：根据量纲和谐原理，1的量纲式为分别有 L：1=a1+b1-3c1T：0=- b1M：0= c1联解得：a1=1，b1=0，c1=0，则同理将各值代入式（1）得无量纲方程为或写成进而可得流量表达式为 （2）式（2）与不计损失时理论推导得到的 （3） 相似。为计及损失对过流量的影响，实际流量在式（3）中引入流量系数Q计算，变为 （4）比较（2）、（4）两式可知，流量系数Q与Re一定有关，又因为式（4）中d2/d1的函数关系并不一定代表了式（2）中函数所应有的关系，故应通过实验搞清Q与Re、d2/d1的相关性。通过以上分析，明确了对文丘里流量计流量系数的研究途径，只要搞清它与Re及d2/d1的关系就行了。由实验所得在紊流过渡区的QRe关系曲线（d2/d1为常数），可知Q随Re 的增大而增大，因恒有2105，使Q值接近于常数0.98。流量系数Q的上述关系，也正反映了文丘里流量计的水力特性。文氏管喉颈处容易产生真空，允许最大真空度为67mH2O。工程中应用文氏管时，应检验其最大真空度是否在允许范围内。据你的实验成果，分析本实验流量计喉颈最大真空值为多少？本实验若d1= 1. 4cm，d2= 0. 71cm，以管轴线高程为基准面，以水箱液面和喉道断面分别为11和22计算断面，立能量方程得则 0 52.22cmH2O即实验中最大流量时，文丘里管喉颈处真空度，而由本实验实测为60.5cmH2O。进一步分析可知，若水箱水位高于管轴线4m左右时，实验中文丘里喉颈处的真空度可达7mH2O（参考能量方程实验解答六4）。（八）局部阻力实验1、结合实验成果，分析比较突扩与突缩在相应条件下的局部损失大小关系。由式 及 表明影响局部阻力损失的因素是和，由于有 突扩： 突缩：则有 当 或 时，突然扩大的水头损失比相应突然收缩的要大。在本实验最大流量Q下，突扩损失较突缩损失约大一倍，即。接近于1时，突扩的水流形态接近于逐渐扩大管的流动，因而阻力损失显著减小。 2.结合流动演示仪的水力现象，分析局部阻力损失机理何在？产生突扩与突缩局部阻力损失的主要部位在哪里？怎样减小局部阻力损失？流动演示仪 I-VII型可显示突扩、突缩、渐扩、渐缩、分流、合流、阀道、绕流等三十余种内、外流的流动图谱。据此对局部阻力损失的机理分析如下：从显示的图谱可见，凡流道边界突变处，形成大小不一的旋涡区。旋涡是产生损失的主要根源。由于水质点的无规则运动和激烈的紊动，相互摩擦，便消耗了部分水体的自储能量。另外，当这部分低能流体被主流的高能流体带走时，还须克服剪切流的速度梯度，经质点间的动能交换，达到流速的重新组合，这也损耗了部分能量。这样就造成了局部阻力损失。从流动仪可见，突扩段的旋涡主要发生在突扩断面以后，而且与扩大系数有关，扩大系数越大，旋涡区也越大，损失也越大，所以产生突扩局部阻力损失的主要部位在突扩断面的后部。而突缩段的旋涡在收缩断面前后均有。突缩前仅在死角区有小旋涡，且强度较小，而突缩的后部产生了紊动度较大的旋涡环区。可见产生突缩水头损失的主要部位是在突缩断面后。从以上分析知。为了减小局部阻力损失，在设计变断面管道几何边界形状时应流线型化或尽量接近流线型，以避免旋涡的形成，或使旋涡区尽可能小。如欲减小本实验管道的局部阻力，就应减小管径比以降低突扩段的旋涡区域；或把突缩进口的直角改为园角，以消除突缩断面后的旋涡环带，可使突缩局部阻力系数减小到原来的1/21/10。突然收缩实验管道，使用年份长后，实测阻力系数减小，主要原因也在这里。3.现备有一段长度及联接方式与调节阀（图5.1）相同，内径与实验管道相同的直管段，如何用两点法测量阀门的局部阻力系数？两点法是测量局部阻力系数的简便有效办法。它只需在被测流段（如阀门）前后的直管段长度大于（2040）d的断面处，各布置一个测压点便可。先测出整个被测流段上的总水头损失，有式中： 分别为两测点间互不干扰的各个局部阻力段的阻力损失； 被测段的局部阻力损失； 两测点间的沿程水头损失。然后，把被测段（如阀门）换上一段长度及联接方法与被测段相同，内径与管道相同的直管段，再测出相同流量下的总水头损失，同样有所以 4、实验测得突缩管在不同管径比时的局部阻力系数如下：序号12345d2/d10.20.40.60.81.00.480.420.320.180试用最小二乘法建立局部阻力系数的经验公式（1）确定经验公式类型现用差分判别法确定。由实验数据求得等差相应的差分，其一、二级差分如下表i123450.20.20.20.2-0.06-0.1-0.04-0.18-0.04-0.04-0.04二级差分为常数，故此经验公式类型为 （1）（2）用最小二乘法确定系数令 是实验值与经验公式计算值的偏差。如用表示偏差的平方和，即 （2）为使为最小值，则必须满足 于是式（2）分别对、求偏导可得 （3）列表计算如下：10.20.480.040.00820.40.420.160.06430.60.320.360.21640.80.180.640.51251.001.001.00总和10.00160.0960.019220.02560.1680.067230.1300.1920.11540.4100.1440.11551.0000总和将上表中最后一行数据代入方程组（3），得到 （4）解得 ，代入式（1）有于是得到突然收缩局部阻力系数的经验公式为 或 （5）5.试说明用理论分析法和经验法建立相关物理量间函数关系式的途径。突扩局部阻力系数公式是由理论分析法得到的。一般在具备理论分析条件时，函数式可直接由理论推演得，但有时条件不够，就要引入某些假定。如在推导突扩局部阻力系数时，假定了“在突扩的环状面积上的动水压强按静水压强规律分布”。引入这个假定的前提是有充分的实验依据，证明这个假定是合理的。理论推导得出的公式，还需通过实验验证其正确性。这是先理论分析后实验验证的一个过程。经验公式有多种建立方法，突缩的局部阻力系数经验公式是在实验取得了大量数据的基础上，进一步作数学分析得出的。这是先实验后分析归纳的一个过程。但通常的过程应是先理论分析（包括量纲分析等）后实验研究，最后进行分析归纳。参与本物业的竣工验收，并在物业移交接管时，与甲方办理物业管理书面交接手续；本物业交付使用后的质量标准.说课标就是要把课程标准中的课程目标（三维目标）作为本课题教学的指导思想和教学依据，从课程论的高度驾驭教材和指导教学设计。Grass-roots governance according to law is an important foundation for promoting the construction of rule of law, but also the most basic development environment. Despite my good social order in General, but there are law-abiding consciousness, social order is not standard, regardless of faith, Twining visit visit and other outstanding problems. We want to actively promote the field of multi-level governance according to law, promote the continuous improvement of the social environment. To promote universal compliance. Actively foster the rule of law culture, carry out law publicity and education on honesty and trustworthiness, guide the masses and consciously abide by the law, failing to find method, problem-solving method, method of gradually changing the world, he is not looking for but someone unspoken rules, formed all law law, abide by the good atmosphere. To strengthen the comprehensive management of public security. Deepening peace xingan construction, strongly against violence crime, mafia and serious criminal offences, to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, carry out criminal policy of temper justice with mercy, the maximum stimulating social vitality, and earnestly safeguard social harmony and stability. To resolve social conflicts by law. To further smooth channels of reporting social conditions and public opinion, improving regulation, arbitration, as well as dispute resolution mechanisms, implement fully the petitioners cases third-party hearings and supervising system of letters and calls, and to resolve the involved law lawsuit into the orbit of rule of law, vexatious, Twining visit visit, disturbing social order and other malicious extortion, resolutely crack down. Five, improving cadres Vitale, provide strong protection for forest development XI General Secretary stressed that the comprehensive revitalization in Northeast China, needs a high quality, solid style, cadres of the dare to play. Cadre cadres is a pledge, should want to do work and able to do good, enthusiasm is paramount. Treat party cadres, it is necessary to Strict management, and warm care, enable the broad masses of cadres work hard work, this is two parallel principles. In strict accordance with the standards of good cadres selection and appointment, the real officers, dare officers, those who want to play, good as excellent cadres at all levels of leadership in the past. At present, some leading cadres work initiative is not high, beyond political, idle, lazy governance governance, not as, slow, messy and a phenomenon still exist to varying degrees, affected and restricted economic and social development. We must mobilize the enthusiasm of cadres as an urgent task, adhere to combination of incentives and constraints, and adhere to the strict management and warm care, practical solution for the officers not to problem, motivate cadres and better lead the masses to an undertaking, the cadres and create the new achievement in a dare to play, good at shows as new. To identify the problem, accurate pulseof law to visit and contribute to make visits to the vexatious visits arrogance. On these issues, we need to have a proper understanding, should take the lead to establish a sense of fear of the law, strengthen the application of the rule of law and the rule of law work of thinking and take up responsibility for the construction of the rule of law. Put learning first. Premise is ignorant of the law, abide by the law. Leading cadres at all levels should take the lead in studying the Constitution and laws and regulations closely related to work assumed by, an accurate grasp of the basic position of our party to address the issue of the rule of law, known for the scale to do things, figure out how to use it right, what things do, what not to do, it can never legal literacy. To enhance the awareness of the rule of law. Firmly establish the supremacy of constitutional law, legal equality before the, right by the