工业设计史——18世纪的设计与商业.ppt

概述： 工业革命的真正发端是一个富足的社会中对于更多、更好商品的渴求，而原有的劳动组织形式和生产技术又无法满足这种渴求。事实上，新的工业方法正是在消费工业，如染织、陶瓷业中产生的。随着机械化和劳动分工的出现，商品日益丰富，为刺激消费，增强市场竞争力就成了生产者面临的巨大挑战。设计作为商业上竞争的有效手段，成了商品生产过程中一个重要的部分，这反过来又促进了设计的发展。工业设计从一开始就与商业结下了不解之缘。,18世纪的设计与商业,天马行空官方博客：/tmxk_docin ；QQ:1318241189；QQ群：175569632,设计的历史始于人类最早制造的石器，但是，就现代工业设计而言，其最大的推动力是工业革命所带来的批量生产与批量消费。18世纪在英国开始的商业化是工业设计发展的起点。 在无数的消费品生产领域中，新颖设计成了一种主要的市场促销方式。为刺激消费，需要不断地花样翻新，推出新的时尚。在这方面，设计师成了引导潮流的主要角色。,第一节 市场的扩展及其对设计的需要,在18世纪，建筑师充当着设计师的角色，引导着设计的发展，进入了手工艺人的传统领地。他们不但决定着范围广阔的各类产品的外观，也为那些先前不曾对“设计”感兴趣的社会集团设计产品。在生产过程中，设计的作用更加明确，其应用也更加广泛。 18世纪下半叶，英国的工业革命使纺织、金属和陶瓷工业中出现了新的组织和生产方式，与此同时，中产阶级崛起，并产生了对新商品的要求。由于英国先于其他国家面临工业革命所产生的社会和艺术上的后果，使英国的工业设计首先发展起来。,第一节 市场的扩展及其对设计的需要,在文化方面，是法国在18世纪上半叶依然左右着人们的审美情趣，许多商品为洛可可式风格所支配。到18世纪末，意大利成了设计师们寻求灵感的所在，新古典（Neo-classicism）成了时代的风尚。,第一节 市场的扩展及其对设计的需要,在文化方面，是法国在18世纪上半叶依然左右着人们的审美情趣，许多商品为洛可可式风格所支配。到18世纪末，意大利成了设计师们寻求灵感的所在，新古典（Neo-classicism）成了时代的风尚。 Neo-classical Art is a severe, unemotional form of art harkening back to the style of ancient Greece and Rome. Its rigidity was a reaction to the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. The rise of Neoclassical Art was part of a general revival of classical thought, which was of some importance in the American and French revolutions. harken倾听 overbred 养育过于优裕的 rigidity坚硬, 僵化,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,新古典是指资本主义初期最先出现在文化上的一种思潮，在建筑和设计史上指18世纪60年代开始在欧美盛行的古典形式。 18世纪前的欧洲，巴洛克式风格和洛可可式风格盛行一时，其繁琐的装饰与贵金属的镶嵌逐渐引起了人们的厌恶。在探求新的设计风格的过程中，希腊、罗马的古典建筑成了当时的创作源泉。1750年，罗马庞贝遗址被发掘，在欧洲引起了研究古典艺术的热潮，人们认识到古典艺术质量远远超过巴洛克式风格和洛可可式风格，促成了新古典的产生与流行。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,新古典追求古典风格和简洁、典雅、节制的品质以及“高贵的纯朴和壮穆的宏伟”。在建筑上追求建筑物体形的单纯、独立和完整，细节的朴实，形式的符合结构逻辑，并且减少纯装饰性的构件，显示了人们对于理性的向往。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,英国的谢拉顿（George Sheraton，17511806）是当时新古典的家具大师。他的椅子设计重点装饰放置于靠背之上，变化很多，但椅腿却很少有曲线装饰，表现出单纯的结构感。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,Around 1800, Romanticism emerged as a reaction to Neoclassicism. It did not really replace the Neoclassical style so much as act as a counterbalancing influence, and many artists were influenced by both styles to some degree. 浪漫主义（Romanticism）是18世纪下半叶至19世纪上半叶活跃于欧洲艺术领域中的另一主要艺术思潮 浪漫主义在要求发扬个性自由，提倡自然天性的同时，用中世纪艺术的自然形式来对抗机器产品。浪漫主义追求非凡的趣味和异国情调，特别是东方的情调。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,Romanticism - Artistic and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century and stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions. Romanticism, attitude or intellectual orientation that characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th century.,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,originate 引起, 发明, 发起, orientation 方向, 定位, 倾向性rebellion谋反, 叛乱, 反抗historiography 编史, 历史之编纂,Romanticism can be seen as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18th-century Neoclassicism in particular. It was also to some extent a reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-century rationalism and physical materialism in general. Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental.,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,rationality合理性 visionary 幻影的, 幻想的physical materialism自然唯物主义 transcendental 先验的, 超越的spontaneous自发的，自然产生的,Among the characteristic attitudes of Romanticism were the following: a deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature; a general exaltation of emotion over reason and of the senses over intellect; a turning in upon the self and a heightened examination of human personality and its moods and mental potentialities; a preoccupation with the genius, the hero, and the exceptional figure in general, and a focus on his passions and inner struggles; a new view of the artist as a supremely individual creator, whose creative spirit is more important than strict adherence to formal rules and traditional procedures; an emphasis upon imagination as a gateway to transcendent experience and spiritual truth; an obsessive interest in folk culture, national and ethnic cultural origins, and the medieval era; and a predilection for the exotic, the remote, the mysterious, the weird, the occult, the monstrous, the diseased, and even the satanic.,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,18世纪的设计师们在处理产品的功能与设计的关系上是暧昧的。他们一方面对产品的坚固性和实用性很关心，另一方面又对装饰有浓厚的兴趣。,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,设计师们生产了多种多样的仪器用于不同的目的，其中一些还是相当复杂的。他们有时难以克制对于装饰的激情，特别是这件仪器是为某一显赫人物订做的时候更是如此。,Gothic（哥特风格）,中世纪欧洲在12至15世纪达到鼎盛，其经济和社会产生了深刻的变革，其思想、文化和艺术也达到了空前的发展。这一时期的艺术风格，通常被称为“哥特式”风格。,Gothic（哥特风格）,。“哥特式”(Gothic)一词的来源颇难说清，因为“哥特”本是来自斯堪的纳维亚的野蛮游牧部落之名称。哥特人自1世纪起开始南迁，并定居多瑙河地区，但在其后漫长的岁月中并未发展出这种子高水落石出平的艺术风格。意大利著名画家拉斐尔在其给教皇利奥十世的信中首先用到“哥特式”一词，借以批评文艺复兴之前中欧及北欧的建筑样式，即把“哥特式”一词作为“野蛮”的同义语，从而将凡是从网尔卑斯山以北传来的东西都称之为“哥特式”的。此后，16世纪的意大利艺术评论家乔尔乔欧瓦萨里把介于欧洲古代与文艺复兴之间的所有艺术都贬称为“哥特人的创作”，“哥特式”之名在艺术史上遂沿用至今。其实，哥特式艺术与哥特人并无任何联系，它乃“罗马式”艺术的更高发展，为中世纪天主教神学观念在艺术上的一种反映。,Gothic- Broadly speaking, the term Gothic refers to the architecture of Northern Europe from the 12th to the 16th century. In Britain, architecture was the dominant art form throughout the medieval period and the Church its foremost patron. Gothic, meaning light, demonstrated a daring architectural ingenuity that allowed the building of taller, thinner structures with larger windows, made possible by the introduction of external buttresses to support the soaring columns and arches of the new style.,哥特风格,patron 赞助人, 资助人 medieval 中世纪的 patron赞助人, 资助人 daring 大胆的,ingenuity 机灵, 独创性, 精巧 buttress (建筑)扶壁, 支持物 soaring 高飞的, 翱翔的 arch 拱门, 弓形结构, 拱形,Around 1800, Romanticism emerged as a reaction to Neoclassicism. It did not really replace the Neoclassical style so much as act as a counterbalancing influence, and many artists were influenced by both styles to some degree. 浪漫主义（Romanticism）是18世纪下半叶至19世纪上半叶活跃于欧洲艺术领域中的另一主要艺术思潮 浪漫主义在要求发扬个性自由，提倡自然天性的同时，用中世纪艺术的自然形式来对抗机器产品。浪漫主义追求非凡的趣味和异国情调，特别是东方的情调。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,Romanticism - Artistic and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century and stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions. Romanticism, attitude or intellectual orientation that characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th century.,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,originate 引起, 发明, 发起, orientation 方向, 定位, 倾向性rebellion谋反, 叛乱, 反抗historiography 编史, 历史之编纂,Romanticism can be seen as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18th-century Neoclassicism in particular. It was also to some extent a reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-century rationalism and physical materialism in general. Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental.,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,rationality合理性 visionary 幻影的, 幻想的physical materialism自然唯物主义的 transcendental 先验的, 超越spontaneous自发的，自然产生的 enlightenment 启迪, 教化,Among the characteristic attitudes of Romanticism were the following: a deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature; a general exaltation of emotion over reason and of the senses over intellect; a turning in upon the self and a heightened examination of human personality and its moods and mental potentialities; a preoccupation with the genius, the hero, and the exceptional figure in general, and a focus on his passions and inner struggles; a new view of the artist as a supremely individual creator, whose creative spirit is more important than strict adherence to formal rules and traditional procedures; an emphasis upon imagination as a gateway to transcendent experience and spiritual truth; an obsessive interest in folk culture, national and ethnic cultural origins, and the medieval era; and a predilection for the exotic, the remote, the mysterious, the weird, the occult, the monstrous, the diseased, and even the satanic.,Romanticism（浪漫主义）,exaltation 提升, 提高, 兴奋supremely 无上地, 崇高地,18世纪的设计师们在处理产品的功能与设计的关系上是暧昧的。他们一方面对产品的坚固性和实用性很关心，另一方面又对装饰有浓厚的兴趣。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,设计师们生产了多种多样的仪器用于不同的目的，其中一些还是相当复杂的。他们有时难以克制对于装饰的激情，特别是这件仪器是为某一显赫人物订做的时候更是如此。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,18世纪的英国，在工业革命之初，尽管在机械化和新的商业组织形式上发生了变化，但产品的种类，特别是日常生活用品的类型并无显著变化，仍然是家具、陶瓷和小五金一类的产品。,切普代尔（Thomas Chippendale，17181799）、魏德伍德（Josiah Wedgwood，17301795）和保尔顿（Matthew Bowlton，17281809）等一些企业家和发明家，不断涌现出来，率先在艺术与工业之间架起了桥梁。,第三节 18世纪的设计风格,与建筑业一样，18世纪的家具生产仍然是以传统的手工艺为主。家具业已不再是一种地方性的工业，但又没有完全商业化。从行会禁锢中解放出来的英国家具业中，自由企业纷纷成立，这就导致了销售渠道迅速地重新改组。 企业家在组织生产和销售两个方面起着越来越重要的作用。不少企业家以伦敦为中心，积极推销产品。他们的家具主要是为新兴的中产阶级市场生产的，而不是像先前那样为贵族阶层订做产品。,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,切普代尔出身木匠世家，他于1753年在伦敦开设了自己的产品展厅，就此开创了自己的事业。1754年，他出版了样本图集绅士与家具指南，作为公司的广告宣传。这本书中家具插图包括了从古典式、洛可可式、中国式直到哥特式的各种风格， 切普代尔有名的风格之一是出自中国的所谓“中国风”，这种风格是随着东方贸易的开展而发展起来的，在1750-1760年间成了女性闺房中极为时髦的式样。,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,切普代尔的家具有自己的一贯手法，16把切普代尔生产的椅子所有的靠背均不同。但腿则都遵循一种基本形式，前腿是直的，后腿略为向外弯曲，其中有5把支持椅腿的木撑也是按同样的方式布置的，其余的变化也很小。这些椅子中，人们可以看到一种肯定的结构逻辑的意识。,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,18世纪家具制造业最重要的一个方面是劳动的不断专业化，这推进了在生产前进行产品规划的思想，使设计、绘图员成了家具公司的雇员。这些公司越来越重视在全国范围内积极推销产品，而不限于满足当地的需要。大多数公司都在伦敦繁华区设立了产品展销厅，以扩大影响。,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs Find out how to identify Chippendale furniture and a little about the man who started the Chippendale style. Thomas Chippendale was a furniture maker of the mid to late 18th century. He was probably born in 1718 but there is no record of his birth, only his baptism in that year. He was the son of an Otley, Yorkshire, England carpenter and most likely an apprentice to his father.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs There are no records of his early life and training but by 1753 he was established in London as a furniture maker. In 1754 he published the first of three editions of his Gentleman and Cabinet-Makers Director, a catalogue of English furniture design. This book is probably the major reason he is one of the worlds best-known furniture makers ever. The description Chippendale has been applied to much of the well-made, English furniture of the 18th century. This is not because the furniture was made by Thomas Chippendale or his factory but because the word Chippendale has become synonymous with a distinguishable style. Surviving furniture actually made by Thomas Chippendale would be rare to the extreme and would require a verifiable provenance.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs Gentleman and Cabinet-Makers Director is the picture book of the Chippendale style. This catalogue allowed wealthy patrons to pick out particular elements for their furniture and the furniture would then be custom made for them by the Chippendale workshop. The Chippendale style reflected many elements of the Rococo, Chinese, Gothic and, later, the Neoclassical styles.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs The Chippendale style didnt remain within the confines of the Chippendale workshops very long. So popular were the designs with the wealthy class of the mid-18th century that soon other furniture makers were using Gentleman and Cabinet-Makers Director as a pattern book for their shops, too. The patterns were not really entirely the creation of Thomas Chippendale, but improved, stylized or modernized versions of popular existing patterns. When we talk about Chippendale furniture today, what we are really talking about is well-constructed, mid- to late-18th century furniture of the Chippendale style.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs Wood used in this style of furniture was generally mahogany. Though veneers were used for furniture of this period, they are not typical of the Chippendale style. Solid wood was used to accommodate the elaborate carving found in this style. Modern reproductions of the Chippendale style will often be hand carved but will not have the depth and detail of carving that genuine 18th century furniture has.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs Another feature of 18th century wood furniture is its irregularity. All the work on this furniture was done by hand and often quite exquisitely. However, handwork, no matter how well done, will not be able to match the exact regularity of machine work. When you examine a piece of wood furniture for the purpose of determining its age, look at the joinery closely. It will reveal a lot about the history of the piece. Hand crafted joints will be slightly irregular and may evidence tool marks, too.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs Finishes on wood furniture can help reveal its age, too. Many techniques exist to falsely age or distress finishes and unscrupulous furniture forgers use them so dont rely on the appearance of a finish alone to judge the age of a piece of furniture. With age, wood takes on what is called a patina. Patina is the warm, mellow, aged look that wood gets from being touched, lived with, polished and cared for. Its something you must see to appreciate. It takes study to understand the different kinds of patination that different woods take on over time. If you intend to invest money in antique furniture, you must spend time learning about the kind of furniture you intend to buy. Local museums are a great place to start. They give you a wonderful opportunity to study authentic antique period furniture and patination up close.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs If what you are after is finding a nice, 18th century Chippendale style chair, you must learn the anatomy of a Chippendale style chair. This article is by no means exhaustive and should serve only as a launching pad for further exploration. Volumes have been written on the Chippendale style and on antique chairs. But, here are some of the elements of chair anatomy and the Chippendale style.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs The legs of an antique chair are revealing. There are six different basic Chippendale style legs. These are the lions paw, the ball and claw, the late Chippendale, the Marlborough, the club and the spade. Picture books will give you an idea what each looks like but three of the styles are based on the cabriole shape which is an elegant, serpentine style ending in a distinctive foot. These include the lions paw, which ends with a lion paw shaped foot, the club, which is a simple round foot and the ball and claw, which (not surprisingly) looks like a claw holding a ball. The remaining leg styles are straight with the Marlborough being a plain, square leg; the spade a tapered round leg often with a square or trapezoid foot and the late Chippendale having a square leg with a square foot.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs There are many variations on the basic leg styles but close observation will reveal the basic pattern. If carving is present, and it most likely will be to some degree, it will be detailed and deeply cut. Leg joints will be precisely done with evidence of handwork. Check for repairs where the leg and seat frame meet. Sometimes, chair legs will have been cut down at the bottom to a shorter stature and this lessens the value of the chair. Stretchers are the horizontal rungs between chair legs. They are sometimes present in Chippendale style chairs. These, too, will be well joined, show evidence of handwork and will often be carved.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs Seats on Chippendale style chairs may be wood, upholstered or caned. One way to check if the upholstery is original is to look at the way it is attached. Are other holes present that would indicate previous upholstery? New upholstery can easily hide holes so dont rely on this method entirely. A textile specialist can determine if the fabric is right for the period, too. Where the legs meet the seat, there will generally be supports called glue blocks. These may have been replaced during the life of the chair, check to see how they are joined. The chair backs will vary by the intended purpose of the chair. There are upholstered backs, rail backs, ladder backs, rung backs, splat backs, carved backs and in the case of stools and window seats, no backs. Look for the same kind of quality in the backs that you expect in the rest of the chair. Carvings will be deep, crisp and detailed. Often there will be piercing, where the solid wood has been pierced through as part of the back detail. One popular splat (back support) type is the lyre shape. Joinery will be well done and show evidence of handwork.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,Chippendale chairs There are many variations on the Chippendale theme but one thing you can be sure of is that if you find a genuine 18th century Chippendale style chair in an antique shop, you are going to have to pay thousands of dollars for it. If its not appropriately priced, the dealer knows that its not 18th century. Take great care in purchasing antiques of this quality and expense. A reputable dealer will give you a written guarantee that the piece is authentic and the guarantee will include a detailed description of the piece and its provenance. If your budget is modest but your taste is expensive, you can buy very fine quality modern reproduction Chippendale style chairs that will appreciate in value over the years. As with any major investment, though, know exactly what you are buying before you write the check.,第四节 切普代尔与18世纪的家具业,魏德伍德1730年出身于一个陶匠家庭，他在将以家庭手工生产为基础，产品十分粗糙的陶业转变成大规模工厂化生产的巨大转变中，起着关键性的作用。正如他墓碑上写的：“他将一个粗陋而不起眼的产业转变成了优美的艺术和国家商业的重要部分。”,第五节 魏德伍德与陶瓷工业,他有意识地将生产分为两个部分以适应不同市场的需要。一部分是为上流阶层生产的极富艺术性的装饰产品，另一部分是大量生产的实用品。并取得了巨大的成功。,罗马古典复兴气息的炻器 (a),第五节 魏德伍德与陶瓷工业,罗马古典复兴气息的炻器 (b),第五节 魏德伍德与陶瓷工业,魏德伍德的装饰用品不少是用一些特殊的矿物质烧制的，特别适于模仿古典的硬石雕刻。其中最有名的是1790年生产的“波特兰”花瓶，其原型是1世纪罗马时期制作的。,魏德伍德最大的成就之一是于1763年开始生产的一种乳白色日用陶器，后来被赐予“女王”牌陶器的称号。,第五节 魏德伍德与陶瓷工业,这种陶器是革命性的，开辟了现代陶瓷生产的新纪元，迄今仍是魏德伍德陶瓷公司的重要产品。,“女王”牌陶器把高质量与低廉的价格结合起来，并由于容易翻模成形，使大规模的工厂化生产成为可能。在回顾自己早期的工作时，魏德伍德曾写道：“关于形式的优美在当时是一个极少受关注的课题。”他后来常常描述