语言学复习资料PPT绝对有用.ppt

Introduction to Linguistics 语言学概论,Course Evaluation,Class attendance and performance 10% Homework 30% Final Exam 60% Week 1-16,Linguistics: theoretical/applied,4,教材及参考书目 戴炜栋、何兆熊等 简明英语语言学教程（修订版），上海外语教育出版社，1989 丁言仁 英语语言学纲要，上海外语教育出版社，2001 胡壮麟语言学教程（修订版） 2001 R. Ellis The Study of Second Language Acquisition(第二语言习得研究)，上海外语教育出版社，1999,Chapter One Introduction,6,Why study language? What is language? Design features of language Functions of language What is linguistics? Main branches of linguistics Macrolinguistics Important distinctions in linguistics,Linguistics,7,What does “language” mean?,1. He uses very bad language. He is very good at language. 2. Shakespeares language; 60s language; old mans language 3. formal language, scientific language, written or spoken language 4. the English /French/ Chinese language 5. He studies language.,8,1.1 Some myths about language,Language is only a means of communication. Language has a form-meaning correspondence. The function of language is to exchange information. English is more difficult to learn than Chinese. Black English is not standard and should be reformed.,9,1.2 Some fundamental views about L,Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. Language operates by rules. All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. Language slowly changes.,10,Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons. Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.,11,2. What is Language?(p.7),12,“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” -Edward Sapir (1884-1939): Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921),13,Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.” -Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964),14,“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” -Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957),15,“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” -Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977) System: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will. Arbitrary: there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. Different languages have different words for it.,16,Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. Symbolic: words are associated with objects, actions and ideas by conventions. Human: language is human-specific.,17,3. Design Features of Language,Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.,18,Human language is unique,Arbitrariness,Duality,Creativity,Displacement,Cultural transmission,Interchangeability,19,3.1 Arbitrariness,Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words: The dog barks in Chinese. 嗙bang “Are you a Mexi can or Mexi cant?” (墨西哥往事台词),20,Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in.,21,3.2 Duality,The property of having two levels of structures：sound v.s. character Eg. tap, pat, apt Hierarchy of language: stratification as the infinite use of finite means. 1. sound-syllable 2.morphemes words phrases clauses sentences/utterances texts/discourses,22,3.3 Creativity,Characters to form new words Words can be used in new ways to mean new things create an infinite number of sentences. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who .,23,3.4 Displacement,Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us.,24,3.5 Cultural transmission,Language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.,25,3.6 Interchangeability,Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.,26,4. Functions of language,27,For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.,28,referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others) metalingual (to make clear intentions and meanings).,six key elements of communication,29,Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.,Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.,30,4.1 ideational function,Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.,31,4.2 Interpersonal function,In the framework of functional grammar, the interpersonal function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant,32,Language reflects: identity (age, sex, personality, intelligence); Geography (accents and dialects ); social class, status, role, distance.,33,4.3 Performative function,Behavior or word? Eg. I now declare the meeting open. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.,34,4.4 Emotive function,To relieve God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.,35,4.5 Phatic communion（感情交融）,Phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language,For example Mrs. P sneezes violently. Mrs. Q: Bless you. Mrs. P: Thank you.,36,Different cultures have different topics of phatic communion. Chinese: Eaten? Rundi women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say “I must go home now, or my husband will beat me.”,37,4.6 Recreational function,songs,38,5. What is Linguistics?,The scientific study of human language Aims of linguistic theory: What is knowledge of language? (Competence) How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) How is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing),39,Important distinctions in linguistics,Descriptive vs. prescriptive Synchronic vs. diachronic Langue & parole Competence and performance,40,Prescriptive vs Descriptive linguistics Prescriptive(规约): lay down rules Descriptive: describe and analyze,41,Synchronic vs. diachronic,A synchronic共时 description takes a fixed view. Most grammars are of this kind. （Language is static） Diachronic历时linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.（Language is developing）,42,Langue 语言& parole 言语,Langue: linguistic system shared by all members Parole: actual use of language abstract-concrete Stable-unstable Theoretical-factual,43,6. Main branches of linguistics,Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics,44,6.1 Phonetics,Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.,45,6.2 Phonology,Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.,46,6.3 Morphology,Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes. Words can be broken down into still smaller units, called morphemes.,47,6.4 Syntax,Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements. Word order: The children watched the firework from the hill . The children watched the firework from the hill .,48,6.5 Semantics,Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.,49,The following are what the key concepts look like: Connotation/denotation of words sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy,50,6.6 Pragmatics,Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. PP CP,51,52,7. Macrolinguistics,Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language.,53,7.1 Psycholinguistics,Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition, biological foundations of language, and a profound aspectthe relati