消费者行为案例专题课.ppt

案例研究专题 （期中大作业）,消费者行为学 臧志 zangzh 2013-11,2-2,学习目标,绿色（可持续）消费 怎么做案例研究 案例研究方法介绍 案例研究要点 案例研究程序 案例研究的写作,绿色消费方式,绿色消费方式及引导、扶持政策研究,4,消费 能力提升,承受 能力减弱,消费 方式转型,城镇化进程、收入提升和经济发展将刺激消费总量提升，消费结构升级,资源环境承受力愈小：亟需阻止生态恶化,“自然资源-产品-废物排放”单向物质流动模式不可持续,消费 能力提升,承受 能力减弱,消费 方式转型,5,以 Ajzen 等的“计划行为理论”和Stern 的“价值-信念-规范理论”为理论基础，环境态度、个人规范和感知行为控制为中介变量，建立生态价值观对绿色消费行为影响的绿色消费模型：,1.3 绿色消费指数构造与测评 (2),2-6,节约资源（Reduce）行为是指购买或使用过程中重视节约资源、能源的行为 环保选购（Revaluate）行为即消费者在购买过程中考虑环境保护因素，多数与绿色产品的购买有关 重复使用（Reuse）行为只需要发挥行为实施者的聪明才智，就可以对物品再利用，它是使用行为的延续 循环利用（Recycle）行为虽然也是消费者对生活废弃物或生活垃圾的处理行为，但消费者凭借外部技术因素或相关公共服务机构的支持才能将废弃物再利用 万物共生（Rescue）行为的典型特征是它体现了人与自然的和谐，人类与自然界的友好行为。,第二部分,Case study,2-7,Deductive Research Model,因果关系的标准,9,问题,哪些研究类型适合得到因果关系模型？,二、变量与假设,John Stuart Mill认为满足三个条件就可以称之为一个因果关系： “因”在“果”之前（时间要求） “因”与“果”之间是相互联系的（共变要求） 除了“因”之外，没有其他的因素可以解释“果”的变化。（非虚假关系）,1806-1873,变量类型与关系模型,自变量 (X) 认定的原因 因变量 (Y) 结果 中介变量 (Med) 过程 调节变量 (Mod) 边界条件 控制变量 其他的原因,10,X,Y,中介变量,调节变量,控制变量,学习目标,案例研究方法介绍 案例研究要点 案例研究程序 案例研究的写作,11,案例研究介绍,Bent Flyvbjerg： Case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research.,2-12,一、案例研究方法,Bent Flyvbjerg, “Five Misunderstandings About Case Study Research.“ Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 2, April 2006, pp. 219-245.,Case Study Research,The essence of a case study, the central tendency among all types of case study is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what result.,Yin, Robert (1994) “Ch 1: Designing Case Studies,“ Case Study Research: Design Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,一、案例研究方法,其他定义,2-14,一、案例研究方法,Usefulness of Case Studies,Case studies can be: Exploratory Explanatory Descriptive (Yin, 1994) Case studies can be used to: Provide description Test theory Generate theory (Eisenhardt, 1989).,Yin, Robert (1994) “Ch 1: Designing Case Studies,“ Case Study Research: Design Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., (1989) “Building Theories From Case Study Research,“ Academy Of Management Review, 14(4) 532-550.,investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin 2002). when the relevant behaviors cannot be manipulated.,一、案例研究方法,Criticisms of the Method,Insufficient rigour Compared to experimental research But actually experiments are not automatically precise or unbiased Inadequate basis for generalisation Which is why multiple cases are conducted The results of a case study investigation can be generalised to theory and can inform theory development Confusing case study research with case study teaching. Case Studies take too long.,一、案例研究方法,案例研究设计,研究的命题,案例研究设计 的五个要素,研究的问题,分析单元,资料与命题的连结logic,解释研究发现的准则,二、案例研究要素,Key Components,Research questions - how and why Research propositions (if any) but not hypotheses That reflect an important theoretical issue and indicate where to look for relevant evidence Unit(s) of analysis What are we studying? Units, people, individuals? What does the data describe? Logic that links the data to the propositions The criteria for interpreting the findings.,二、案例研究要素,案例研究设计五要素,案例研究对于“如何”和“为什么”的问题可能是最合适的。因此案例研究设计首先要准确地确认所研究问题的本质。,研究的问题,研究中的每个命题，会将你的注意力引导到在研究范围内所应该要审视的事情上。,定义何谓“案例/个案”可能是个人，也可能是一些事件或是个体。,Donald Campbell（1975）提出模式对比（Pattern Matching）：来自同一个案例中一些信息可能会和某些理论的命题有关。,研究的命题,分析单元,资料data与命题间的连结logic,目前并没有明确的方法来设定解释这类发现的准则。 可以用比较至少两个对立命题的方式来解释发现。,解释研究发现的准则,二、案例研究要素,分析单元特别说明,二、案例研究要素,Campbell模式对比的例子,1 2 3 4 5 6 7,意外死亡的数目,立法令,1 2 3 4 5 6 7,意外死亡的数目,立法令,有功效的模型,没有功效的模型,51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59,意外死亡的数目,立法令,实际观察,325 300 275 250 225 200,资料来源：COSMOS Corporation,二、案例研究要素,理论发展,完整的研究设计还应包含一个与研究主题相关的理论。 对某些主题，目前已有的工作成果可以提供理论架构。 某些状况下，适合的理论可能是描述性的理论。 对某些主题，现有知识背景与文献都很贫乏，可能被假设有作为“探索性”研究的特征。,实施一个新的管理信息系统（MIS）的案例研究 这个案例研究将会指出，为什么实施MIS系统只有在组织能够自我重新建构时才能成功，而不是只把新的MIS应用在旧的组织结构上。（Markus,1983）,一个简单理论的构成要素,二、案例研究要素,从案例研究推论至理论,发展适当的理论，也使案例研究结果可以产生概化的层级。 理论发展在案例研究中是一种“分析式概化”，并非“统计式概化”。 每一个个案并不是抽样单位，而且也不应该是为了要选取抽样单位而被选取成为个案。,二、案例研究要素,两个推论的层级,理论,政策含义,母体特征,样本,实验的发现,对立理论,对立的政策含义,主体,案例研究的发现,案例研究,调查研究,实验法,第一层,第二层,资料来源：COSMOS Corporation,二、案例研究要素,案例研究设计示例,二、案例研究要素,案例研究的设计类型,单一案例设计,多重案例设计,整体性的 (单一分析单元),嵌入式的 (多重分析单元),资料来源：COSMOS Corporation,三、案例研究类型,Single Case Design,The focal case is used to test a well-formulated theory The case meets all the criteria for testing the theory The case represents an extreme or unique case The revelatory case A situation that occurs when the investigator has an opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible to scientific investigation. A single case may have multiple units of analysis,三、案例研究类型,选择单一案例的原因,关键性案例,极端或特例,揭露式案例,关键性案例,极端或特殊案例,反映之前的科学研究无法探究的现象，多用于社会学。,揭露式案例,少见的，任何一个单一案例都值得记录并分析。在医学、临床心理学 应用较广。,选择 单一 案例 的 原因,关键性案例在理论上已经具体地说明了一组清楚的命题，以及这组命题使用的条件。,先导案例,作为进一步研究的开场。,先导案例,三、案例研究类型,类型一/二：单一整体性/嵌入式案例,同样的案例可能包含一个以上的分析单元。嵌入式分析单元是比案例本身更小的分析单元。,研究某个 经营计划,嵌入式分析单元,计划中的个别专案,“过程”单元： 会议、事件节点,计划涉及的人员、角色,如果案例研究只考察一个计划或组织整体的本质，那就是使用整体性设计（类型一）。,三、案例研究类型,单一案例设计易犯之错误,整体性设计进一步的问题是，整个案例研究的本质可能会在研究进行期间有所改变，但研究者却一无所知。 嵌入式设计的易犯错误：只注重子单元层级，而无法回到更大的分析单元。,三、案例研究类型,Multiple Case Design,This means that the same study has two or more cases The evidence from multiple cases is often considered more compelling, which makes the overall study more robust. Undertaking a multiple case study can require extensive resources and time beyond the means of a single researcher. Each case must be chosen carefully and specifically The cases should have similar results (a literal replication) or contrary results (a theoretical replication) predicted explicitly at the outset of the investigation.,三、案例研究类型,Multiple Case Design,It is important in a replication process to develop a rich, theoretical framework. The framework needs to state the conditions under which a particular phenomenon is likely to be found (literal replication) and the conditions under when it is not likely to be found (theoretical replication). The individual cases within a multiple-case study design may be either holistic or embedded. When an embedded design is used each individual case study may in fact include the collection and analysis of highly quantitative data, e.g. surveys.,三、案例研究类型,选择多重案例的优缺点,稳健性,资源与时间的耗费,无法替代关键性、揭露式以及例外或少见的案例。,无法满足采用单一案例的原因,执行多重案例研究可能会需要大量的资源，耗费大量的时间。,多重案例得到的证据，通常都被认为是较强有力的，因此，整个研究常被认为是较为稳健的。,三、案例研究类型,Analyzing within field and cross case data:,This preliminary analysis assists in organizing the enormous quantities of data Cross case data forces researchers to go beyond initial impressions. For cross-case data analysis, can look at within group similarities and intergroup differences. Select pairs of cases, and list similarities and differences between each group forces researcher to look for subtle similarities and differences.,Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., (1989) “Building Theories From Case Study Research,“ Academy Of Management Review, 14(4) 532-550.,三、案例研究类型,多重案例的复现逻辑,复 现 逻 辑,抽 样 逻 辑,原样复现,理论复现,预测类似的结果： 某个特定现象在哪些条件下可能被发现？（一种原样复现）,由可预测的理由，产生不同的结果： 特定现象在哪些条件下不可能被发现？ （一种理论复现）,三、案例研究类型,多重案例复现逻辑示例,Peter SzantonNot Well Advised研究了很多大学和研究团体试图要和城市官员合作的经验。,第一组案例,第二组案例,第三组案例,四组 案例,第四组案例,显示出不同大学的团体在帮助这些城市时都失败了。,显示出学校以外的团体也失败了。,显示出少数可以帮助市政府的团体不只会帮忙产生新的想法，还会关心如何实施的问题。,显示出大学如何成功地帮助企业、工程公司及市政府以外的其他部门。,原样复现,理论复现,三、案例研究类型,多重案例的复现逻辑,2006年3月,三、案例研究类型,Examine not just one process story, but allowing theoretical ideas to be tested and deepened in different settings: Klarner and Raisch (2013) obtain their data from annual corporate reports of 67 European insurance companies between 1995 and 2004. They code these data into six different temporal patterns of change using an innovative multiple sequence alignment method derived from the biological sciences and then show how regularity in ongoing organizational changes is associated with performance using statistical methods. Bresman (2013) uses an interesting embedded multiple case design, focusing on two units in a pharmaceutical company, and examining learning transferred among four successive projects occurring in each unit (for a total of eight units of analysis). His inductively derived four-phase process model of vicarious learning is replicated across all his cases. Bruns (2013) replicates her model of collaborative research in two different settings involving multiple groups. Maguire and Hardy (2013) also compare two different cases of risk assessment processes, showing how both incorporated similar bundles of normalizing and problematizing practices, but how the differential ordering of these practices led to different consequences for the construction of risk.,类型三/四 ：多重整体性/嵌入式案例,Ira Magaziner Mark Patinkin 所著的The Silent War: Inside the Global Business Battles Shaping Americans Future ,其中一个个案韩国的三星公司，这是一个关于使该公司具有竞争力的关键策略的个案。它包含一个嵌入式分析单元以三星在微波炉上的发展作为说明的产品。,另一个个案是关于苹果电脑制造商在新加坡的发展，是新加坡是国家更具竞争力的关键政策的个案研究。苹果电脑公司制造商的经验就是一个嵌入式分析单元。,多重嵌入式案例,类型三与四之间的差异决定于所研究现象的类型。,三、案例研究类型,40,四、案例研究程序,案例研究的程序,叙述目标,设定研 究路径,搜集 资料,组织 数据,研究单位 及其特征、关系、历程等的确定,研究单位如何选取？可用的资料来源有哪些？使用那些方法搜集数据？,确定有关资料的来源,整合成为一个完整结构的研究单位,撰写结果报告 讨论结果重要性,注意研究报告的种类、撰写方式、说明结构,四、案例研究程序,Conducting Case Studies 1,Preparation for Data Collection The researcher should be able to ask good questions be a good listener be adaptive and flexible have a firm grasp of the issues being studied be unbiased by preconceived notions For the specific context of the case study and organization,四、案例研究程序,Conducting Case Studies 2,The researcher must be able to make intelligent decisions about the data being collected. This will require knowledge about why the study is being done; what evidence is being sought; what variations can be anticipated what would constitute supportive or contrary evidence for any given proposition Survey or interview designers also need to know the purpose of the survey and the nature of the analysis that will follow,四、案例研究程序,Case Study Protocol,The protocol should include An overview of the case study project (project, substantive issues, relevant reading) Field procedures (how to gain access to interviewees, planning for sufficient resources, providing for unanticipated events etc) Case study questions (about individuals, multiple cases, entire study, normative questions about policy recommendations and conclusions,四、案例研究程序,Pilot Case Study,It may be sensible to conduct a small-scale pilot case study first so as to test procedures and protocols The pilot can be more convenient so as to train research team members and even act as a “laboratory“ The research questions can be broader and less focused than the ultimate data collection plan. The pilot reports can provide lessons for both research design and field procedures,四、案例研究程序,六种证据来源,四、案例研究程序,收敛的多重证据来源,事 实,文件,档案记录,开放式访谈,事实观察,结构化访谈或调查,焦点访谈,资料来源：COSMOS Corporation,四、案例研究程序,Documents, Archives Artifacts,Current organisational documents Policies, practices, templates Historical archive records Past practices, reports on past projects These two forms of data are useful for corroborating evidence from other sources Artifacts include physical objects like certificates, awards, etc.,四、案例研究程序,Interviews,Case study interviews are usually open-ended Focused interviews can still be open-ended but involve following specific questions derived from the case study protocol More structured questions, along the lines of a formal survey. A structured interview would involve the sampling procedures and the instruments used in regular surveys, and it would subsequently be analyzed in a similar manner.,四、案例研究程序,Direct Observations,By making a field visit to the case study “site“, the investigator is creating the opportunity for direct observations. To increase the reliability of observational evidence, a common procedure is to have more than one observer making an observation, whether formally or casually.,四、案例研究程序,Principles of Data Collection 1,Using multiple sources of evidence The opportunity to use multiple sources of evidence in case studies far exceeds that in other research methods such as experiments or surveys. The use of multiple sources of evidence in case studies allows an investigator to address a broader range of historical and observational issues. It also enables better triangulation of findings It contributes to a holistic understanding of a case and indeed contributes to theorization.,四、案例研究程序,Principles of Data Collection 2,Creating a case study database The lack of a formal database for most case study efforts is a major shortcoming of case study research. Four components should be contained in a database created for case study research Notes (including interview data) Documents Tabular materials (e.g. from surveys; structured interviews) Narrative (stories; diaries).,四、案例研究程序,Principles of Data Collection 3,Maintaining a chain of evidence This is to allow an external observer - the reader of the case study for example - to follow the derivation of any evidence from initial research questions to ultimate case study conclusions. Then the final results can adequately reflect construct validity and reliability, thereby becoming worthy of further analysis. The three principles above are intended to make the data collection process as explicit as possible.,四、案例研究程序,Analyzing Case Study Evidence,Relying on theoretical propositions The proposition helps to focus attention on some data and to ignore others to organize the entire case study and to define alternative explanations to be examined Developing a case description Develop a descriptive framework to organize the case study and identify types of event or process or interaction an overall pattern of complexity that could be used to explain why an implementation failed.,四、案例研究程序,案例研究分析模式,案例研究 分析模式,模式对比,建立解释,时间序列,程序逻辑模式,主要分析模式,分析嵌入式单元,重复观察,跨个案的次级分析,次要分析模式,四、案例研究程序,Modes of Analysis,Pattern matching Comparing an empirically based pattern with a predicted one. If the patterns coincide, the results can help to strengthen a case studys internal validity. Explanation building Analyze the data by building case explanations. Time series analysis Match data over time with: A theoretically significant trend specified in advance A rival trend, also specified in advance,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,这种逻辑（Trochim，1989）比较了以实证（经验）为基础的模式和理论或假说所预测的模式。 如果是解释性的案例研究，这些模式可能会和研究的自变量或因变量有关（或是两者）。如果是描述性的案例研究，只要在收集资料之前就先定义好特定变量间所预期的模式，模式对比仍可用。 Pattern matching: where a set of results is predicted, and then compared with the actual ones.,资料收集,由实证观察到的模式,由理论预测到的模式,数据处理,理论/假说,模式对比,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,企业通过进入新业务而获得成长，新业务对现有业务的影响,企业进入一个为企业所熟悉的新业务领域，且管理者在新业务领域具有经验。,影响,协同作用,与现有业务竞争管理者,与现有业务竞争资源,不相等的因变量,用不同的方法和工具评价,与案例一不同的整体模型,第二个案例,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,四、案例研究程序,模式对比,如果在多重案例中，得到完全相同的结果，那么应该就完成了单一案例的原样复现。如果由于预期中的环境差异，第二组案例中无法得到相同的结果，那么就完成了理论复现，一开始所得到的结果就会更为稳健。,对单一案例来说，成功地吻合其中一个对立解释的模式，就可以得出这个解释正确的结论。,以对立的解释为模式,四、案例研究程序,案例研究品质的测试,四、案例研究程序,Standards of Excellence,Significance Completeness Alternative perspectives considered Sufficient evidence displayed An engaging, attractive and readable style Failure cases can be as instructive as successful cases, if the explanations are persuasive,四、案例研究程序,Case Study Report Styles,Linear-analytic Problem, methods, findings of data collection and analysis, conclusion. Comparative The same kind of case is repeated two or three times Alternative descriptions or explanations can be compared. Theory-building Where case evidence is used to construct/ground a new theory Suspense the result comes first, the reasons later.,四、案例研究写作,案例写作示例,The Dutch heart health community intervention “Hartslag Limburg“: evaluation design and baseline data (Gaby Ronda, Patricia Van Assema, Erik Ruland, Mieke Steenbakkers and Johannes Brug, Health Education, Vol. 103 No. 6).,四、案例研究写作,案例写作示例,An example of developing a business model for information and communication technologies (ICT) adoption on construction projects the National Museum of Austral