9.Results and Discussion.ppt

1,ResultsandDiscussionLectureFourResultsandDiscussion,2,Lecturetopics:PurposeWhattheresultsanddiscussionsectionsincludeCommonproblemsInformationConventionsLanguageConventionsAdvice,3,PURPOSETheresultssectionofthereportpresentsthefindingsofthestudyinbothfiguresandonwrittentext.Figures(graphs,tablesanddiagrams)presentthecompletefindingsinnumericaltermsTheaccompanyingtexthelpsthereadertofocusonthemostimportantaspectsoftheresultsandtointerpretthem.,4,WHATTHERESULTSECTIONINCLUDESElement1:astatementthatlocatesthefigure(s)wheretheresultscanbefoundE.g.FOREIGNLANGAUGEINPRIMARYSCHOOL:ACOMPARISONOFACHIEVEMENTFigure7.2showstheaveragescoresonthefourtestsadministeredtonon-immersionandimmersionFrenchstudents.StudentsintheFrenchimmersionprogrammesperformedsignificantlybetterthantheirnon-immersionpeersonallfourModernLanguageAssociationtests.Inallfourteststheimmersionstudentsscoredanaverageof20pointsmorethantheirnon-immersionpeers.Thefindingsindicatethattheamountofexposuretoaforeignlanguagehasapositiveeffectonstudentperformance.ItappearsthattheintensityofimmersionprogrammesanduseofforeignlanguagetostudybasicsubjectsresultsinsubstantialdifferencesinperformanceinallfourskillareasoftheMLAtest.,5,ComparingyourfindingswiththoseofotherresearchersWhenyoudiscusstheresultsofyourstudyitisimportantthatyoudonotdiscusstheminisolation.Youshouldrelatethemtothefindingsthatyouhavealreadydiscussedintheliteraturereview.,6,Tocompareyourfindingswiththoseofotherresearchers,thepresenttenseisalsocommon.E.g.1.OurresultslargelysupportthosebyDaSilvaetal.2.TheparametersandparticipantnumbersoftheU.StrialarefarwiderthanthoseofHongKong.,7,Element2:statementsthatpresentthemostimportantfindingsInthissectionyouwillgivefactualinformation.Sometimesyoumaywanttogiveaccuratefactualinformatione.g.80%ofstudents,sometimesyoumaywanttogeneralisee.g.themajorityofstudents.STRUCTUREANDVOCAULARYAIDA.modalVerbsandtentativeverbs:may/might/could/can/seemsto/tendsto,8,E.g.1.Industrialisationtendstobeviewedasabetterwayoflife.2.TheincreaseincrimeseemstobearesultofhighunemploymentB.ImpersonalverbphrasesItappearsto/thatItseemsto/thatIttendstobeThereisatendencyfor/toE.g.Itappearsthattheincreaseincrimeisaresultofhighunemployment,9,CVerbsnounsusedtoshowcautionVerbs:suggest,indicate,believe,estimate,assumeNouns:assumption,claim,estimate,possibility,chance,likelihoodE.g.1.Resultsindicatethatthenumberofteenagerswhosmokemorethan10cigarettesadayisincreasing.2.Thereisalikelihoodthatcrimewillincreaseinthenexttenyears.,10,ELEMENT3UsingcautiouslanguagetodiscusstheresultsItisverycommoninacademicwritingtobecarefulaboutanyclaimswemakewhendiscussingtheresultsofourstudies.Thisisbecauseitwouldbedifficulttocometodefiniteconclusionsbasedontheverysmallamountofevidencethatyouhave.Thereareseveralwaysthatwecanexpresscautioninourwriting.,11,Wecanuse:Animpersonalverbphrasee.gItappearsthat(seeabovetext)Amodalverbe.gmay/couldAtentativeverbe.gsuggestthat/seemtoindicatethat,12,PURPOSEANDCONTENTOFTHEDISCUSSIONSECTIONThediscussionsectionisforcommentonandexplanationoftheresults.Itincludes:1.Explanationofresults:thewritercommentsonwhetherornottheresultswereexpected,andpresentsexplanationsfortheresults,particularlyforthosethatareunexpectedorunsatisfactory.,13,2.Referencestopreviousresearch:comparisonoftheresultswiththosereportedintheliterature,oruseoftheliteraturetosupportaclaim,hypothesisordeduction.3.Deduction:aclaimforhowtheresultscanbeappliedmoregenerally(aconclusionbasedonreasoningfromtheresults)4.Hypothesis:amoregeneralclaimorpossibleconclusionarisingfromtheresults(whichwillbeprovedordisprovedinlaterresearch).,14,FirstInformationElementsInDiscussionSpecificReferencetotheStudy,Areferencetothemainpurposeorhypothesisofthestudy.Areviewofthemostimportantfindings,whetherornottheysupporttheoriginalhypothesis,andwhethertheyagreewiththefindingsofotherresearchers.Possibleexplanationsfororspeculationsaboutthefindings.Limitationsofthestudythatrestricttheextenttowhichthefindingscanbegeneralized.,15,LaterInformationElementsinDiscussionGeneralStatementsaboutthestudy,Implicationsofthestudy(generalizationsfromtheresults);Recommendationsforfutureresearchandpracticalapplications.,16,Example:DiscussionAge,Experience,AndPerformanceonSpeedandSkillJobsInanAppliedSetting（Originalhypothesis)Thedecrementaltheoryofagingledustoinferthatolderworkersinspeedjobswouldhavepoorerperformance,greaterabsenteeism,andmoreaccidentscomparedwithotherworkers.(findings)Thefindings,however,goagainstthetheory.Theolderworkersgenerallyearnedmore,wereabsentless,hadfeweraccidentsandlessturnoverthanyoungerones.(tobecontinued),17,(explanation)Onepossibleconclusionisthattherequirementsofthespeedjobsinthelightmanufacturingindustryunderstudydonotmakephysicaldemandsontheolderworkerstothelimitsoftheirreservecapacity.Thecompetenceandexperienceoftheolderworkersinthesespecificjobsmayhavecompensatedfortheirreducedstamina(tobecontinued),18,(limitations)Thisstudyhastakenastepinthedirectionofdefiningtherelationshipbetweenage,experience,andproductivityinoneparticularindustry.Itispossibleofcoursethatotherindustrieswithadifferentcomplexmayproduceentirelydifferentresults.Inaddition,itisimportanttoemphasizethatmethodologicalproblemsintheresearchdesignlimitourinterpretations.(tobecontinued),19,(needforfurtherstudy)Theapproachoutlinedhereshouldbereplicatedinothermanufacturingplants,aswellasinotheroccupationalareasinlight,medium,andheavyindustriesinordertoconstructatypologyofolderworkerperformanceinavarietyofjobs.(Theend),20,ORGANIZATIONofDISCUSSION,Therearetwobasicwaysoforganizingtheresultsanddiscussion:1)Presentingalltheresults,thengivingadiscussion(perhapsinadifferentsection)2)Presentingpartoftheresultsthengivingadiscussion,presentinganotherpartthengivingadiscussion,etc.,21,Themethodoforganizationyouusewilldependonthequantityandtypeofresultsyouobtainfromyourresearch.Youshouldlookforamethodofpresentationthatmakestheinformationandideasyouarepresentingasclearaspossibletothereader.,22,Organisingtheinformationintheconclusion,SpecificReferencetothestudy1.Areferencetothemainpurposeorhypothesisofthestudy2.Areviewofthemostimportantfindings,whetherornottheysupporttheoriginalhypothesis,andwhethertheyagreewiththefindingsofotherresearchers3.Possibleexplanationsforthefindings4.Limitationsofthestudythatrestricttheextenttowhichthefindingscanbegeneralized,23,Afterdoingtheabove,youshouldnowmovethereadersattentionawayfromthespecificresultsofthestudyandbegintofocusmoregenerallyontheimportancethatthestudymayhaveforotherworkersinthefield.GeneralStatementsaboutthestudy5.Implicationsofthestudy(generalizationsfromtheresults)6.Recommendationsforfutureresearchandpracticalimplicationsofthestudy(e.g.forindustry),24,COMMONPROBLEMSThetextincludestoomuchdetailthatsimplyrepeatsdatapresentedingraphs,tables,etc.withoutmakingtheresultsmeaningful.Solution:rememberthattablesetc.areusedtopresentalotofinformationefficiently,butthatyourjobistodirectthereadersattentiontosignificantpartsofthisinformation.,25,FunctionsofComments,Commentsmay:generalizefromtheresults;explainpossiblereasonsfortheresults;comparetheresultswithresultsfromotherstudies,26,Examples:1).Thisdifferenceinperceivedtimeavailableforyouthrelatedactivitiesislikelyduetotheadditionalamountoftimespentonthejobbydivorcedmothers.2).Thereasonsforthiserraticpatterncouldbetheagedistributionofthechildrenortherelativelysmallnumberofwomeninthesamplewiththreeormorechildren.,27,3).Thesefindingsaccordwiththosefromalargerstudyinwhichthesamesupplementationprogramincreasedbirthrightsbyanaverageof224ginthemonthsJulytoJanuary(11).4).Uptothispoint,theseresultsareconsistentwiththoseofChapmanandHutchinson(1982).,28,LanguageConventions,ChooseVerbTenseforResultsInusingthethree-stepformattowriteyourresultssection,youshouldobservethefollowingverbtenseconventions.InElement1,usethepresenttensetolocateyourdatainafigure.,29,Examples:,1).Resultsofthet-testsarepresentedinTable1.2).Table4summarizesthetestresultsonpre-contaminatedinsulators.3).Table3presentsthedataforworkersholdingskilljobs.,30,Whenyoureportyourfindings,usethepasttense.Examples:1).Asagroup,divorcedmothersspentovertwiceasmuchtimeinemploymentasmarriedmothers(figure2).2).Thecoefficientofcorrelationwasfoundtobesignificantathe.001level.,31,BeingCautious:hedging,Becauseofthenatureofacademicwriting,youmustbecarefulnottoallowyourconclusionstopresumetoomuchthatis,tobetoodefinite.Anyconclusionsthatyoumakemustbeverycarefullywordedsoastoindicatethatwhatisbeingsaid/claimedistentativeoruncertaini.e.,trueonlyaccordingtothebestavailableevidence.,32,Otherwise,theclaimsyoumake,theconclusionsyoudraw,and/orthesupportyouofferwillbeopentocriticismfromyourlecturersasnotbeingintellectuallyhonestinthatyouarenotleavingthedooropenforotherpointsofview.Forthisreason,itiswisetoavoidtheuseofsuchabsolutetermsasall,any,every,always,andnever.,33,Examplesofcautiouslanguage,1.Introductoryverbs:e.g.seemto,tendto,appeartobe,2.Certainreferencingverbse.g.believe,suggest,indicate3.Adverbsoffrequency:often,sometimes,usually4.Modaladverbs:probably,possibly,perhaps,conceivably,34,5.Certainmodalverbs:e.g.may,might,could6.Modaladjectives:probable,possible7.Modalnouns:assumption,possibility,probability8.Thatclauses:e.g.Itcouldbethecasethate.g.Itmightbesuggestedthate.g.Itislikelythat,35,Probability,TherearemanywaysofexpressingprobabilityinwrittenacademicEnglish.Thesimplestisthemodalauxiliary.Noticehowtheclaimsprogressivelyweakeninthesethreesentences:1.Areducedspeedlimitwillresultinfewerhighwayinjuries.2.Areducedspeedlimitmayresultinfewerhighwayinjuries.3.Areducedspeedlimitcouldresultinfewerhighwayinjuries,36,Inthesefurtherexamples,thephrasesweakeninstrength.Itiscertain/almostcertain/veryprobable/highlylikely/probable/likely/possible/unlikely/veryunlikely/highlyimprobablethatareducedspeedlimitwillresultinfewerinjuries,37,Distance,Distanceisanotherwayofremovingyourselffromastrong-andpossiblyunjustified-claim.Comparethesesentences.1.Consumershavelessconfidenceintheeconomytodaythan10yearsago.2.Consumersseem/appeartohavelessconfidenceintheeconomy3.Itwouldseem/appearthatconsumershavelessconfidenceintheeconomy,38,Analternativestrategyistodistanceyourselffromthedatabyshowinginsomewaythatitissoft.Hereareafewexamples.Onthelimiteddataavailable,/Intheviewofsomeexperts,/Accordingtothispreliminarystudy,alowerspeedlimitmayreducefatalities.,39,Generalization,Theclassicverbfordefendingageneralizationistheverbtend.E.g.1.Consumershavelessconfidenceintheeconomy.2.Consumerstendtohavelessconfidenceintheeconomy.Anotherwaytodefendageneralizationistoqualifythesubject.1.Manyconsumershavelessconfidenceintheeconomy.2.Amajorityofconsumershavelessconfidenceintheeconomy.3.Inmostpartsofthecountry,consumershavelessconfidenceintheeconomy.4.Consumersinmostincomebracketshavelessconfidenceintheeconomy.,40,WeakerVerbsFinally,claimscanbereducedinstrengthbychoosingaweakerverb.Deregulationcausedthebankingcrisis.(stronger)Deregulationcontributedtothebankingcrisis.(weaker),41,Whenthecommentgivesapossibleexplanationfortheresults,useamodalauxiliaryortentativeverbs.1.Theseresultscan/maybeexplainedbyconsideringthevoltagedistributionon230kVinsulatorsduringfreezingconditions.2.Thereasonsforthiserraticpatterncouldbetheagedistributionof.,42,Example:Comment:TentativeVerbsappearshyperactivechildren1.Itseemsthataregenerallyislikelyresponsiveto.2.Theseresultssuggestthatchildrenwhodisplaylearningproblemsaredependingononlyonecerebralhemisphere.,43,Example,44,ThepiechartrevealswhattheaverageBritonthrowsaway.Fromtheinformationshown,wecanseethatexactlyathirdoftherubbishispaperwaste,whileplasticaccountsforslightlymorethanaquarter.Foodwasteisthenextbiggestcategory,accountingforslightlylessthanafifth.GlassmakesupatenthofthecontentsoftheaverageBritishdustbin,andmetalandclothmakeuptheremainingpercentage-7%and5%respectively.,45,TipsforResultSection,InformationIncludethreeelementsofinformationinpresentingresults.Writecommentsaftereachimportantfinding,orputageneralcommentaftertheresults.LanguageUsepresenttensetolocatefindings.Usepasttensetoindicatethemostimportantfindings.Usepresenttenseormodalauxiliariestocommentonthefindings.,46,Discussion,Thisisthelastmajorsectionofthepaper,followedbythelistofreferences.Inthissection,youstepbackandtakeabroadlookatyourfindingsandyourstudyasawhole.Itmovesthereadersbackfromthespecificinformationreportedinthemethodsandresultssectionstoamoregeneralviewofhowthefindingsshouldbeinterpreted,47,TipsforDiscussion,InformationIncludevariouselementsofinformation,dependingontheproblemsencountered,resultsobtained,possibleapplications,andfurtherresearchneeded.Movefromspecificresultstogeneralimplications.,48,LanguageUsepasttensetorefertooriginalhypothesisUsesimplepresent/pastormodalauxiliarieswhenexplainingyourresults.Usetentativeverbstomakeimplicationsorrecommendationsortosuggestapplications.,49,SOMEADVICEIfyouareputtingyourdiscussionintoadiscussionsectionseparatefromtheresults,youmaywanttoprovideasummaryoftheresultstoremindyourreaderofyourmainfindings.,50,Putyourresultsincontext(e.g.bycomparingthemwithpreviousresearch,orwithexistingtheory)inordertoexplainthem.Givereasonstoaccountfordifferencesbetweenyourresearchandpreviousresearchorexistingtheory,ortoexplainunexpectedresults.,51,Althoughtheremaybesomerepetitionofinformationintheresultsanddiscussionsections,itshouldbekepttoaminimum.Remembertoothatthefocusshouldbedifferent:whileyouaresimplypresentingresultsandmakingthemmeaningfultoyourreaderintheresultssection,inthediscussionsectionyouareexplainingthem.,52,Exercises,One:Readthefollowingextractandanswerthequestion“Whichoftheelementsbelowarecontainedintheconclusion?”1.Implicationsofthefindings2.Proposalsforfurtherresearch3.Limitationsoftheresearch4.Referencetohowthesefindingscomparewithotherstudies5.Summaryandexplanationofthemainfindings6.Detailsofthemainaimofthestudyortheoriginalhypothesis,53,AGE,EXPERIENCEANDPERFORMANCEONSPEEDANDSKILLJOBSINANAPPLIEDSETTINGTheexcrementaltheoryofagingledustoinferthatolderworkersinspeedjobswouldhavepoorerperformance,greaterabsenteeismandmoreaccidentscomparedwithotherworkers.Thefindings,however,contradictthisoriginalhypothesis.Theolderworkersgenerallyearnedmore,wereabsentless,hadfeweraccidents,andhadlessturnoverthanyoungerworkers.Onepossibleconclusionisthattherequirementsofthespeedjobsinthelightmanufacturingindustryunderstudydonotmakephysicaldemandsontheolderworkerstothelimitsoftheirreservecapacity.Thecompetenceandexperienceoftheolderworkersinthesespecificjobsmayhavecompensatedfortheirreducedstamina.,54,Thisstudyhastakenastepinthedirectionofdefiningtherelationshipbetweenage,experience,andproductivityinoneparticularindustry.Itispossiblethatotherindustrieswithadifferentcomplexofspeedjobsandskillsmayproducedifferentresults.Inaddition,itisimportanttoemphasisethatmethodologicalproblemsintheresearchdesignlimitourinterpretations.Theapproachoutlinedinthisstudyshouldbereplicatedinothermanufacturingplants,aswellasinotheroccupationalareasinlight,medium,andheavyindustriesinordertoconstructatypologyofolderworkerperformanceinavarietyofjobs.,55,Two:ThefollowingconclusionisfromareportdiscussinghowstudentsfromdifferentacademicbackgroundsadapttoacademiclifeintheUK.However,itisinthewrongorder.Findthemostsuitableorderfortheinformation._Thefindingssuggesttha