《语言学4Syntax》PPT课件.ppt

Topic4Syntax句法,Linguistics,GrammarDynamically,wecanstudyhowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.,Whatdoessyntaxstudy?,Forexample:Manyboyslikefootball.Syntaxstudies:ManyboysnounphrasesubjectlikefootballverbphrasepredicateManyadj.attributefootballn.object,Whatdoessyntaxstudy?,Traditionally:Word-level:partsofspeech(n.conj.art.num.)Sentence-level:subject,predicate,object,attribute,adverbial,predicative,complement,4.2Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations,Syntagmaticrelations(横组合关系):therelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.(originallyintroducedbySaussure)Setsofsyntagmaticallyrelatedconstituentsareoftenreferredtoasstructures.e.g.HeisfromFrance.Thelinearorderingofthefourwordsformsthesyntagmaticrelation.,Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations,paradigmaticrelations(纵聚合关系):thesetofrelationshipsalinguisticunithaswithotherunitsinaspecificcontext.Paradigmaticrelationsholdbetweenanitemandsimilaronesthatcanappearinthesamepositioninasequence.e.g.HeisfromFrance.SheAmerica,Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations,WecangotomorrowsyntagmaticrelationShemaycomesoonIwillasknextYoucouldsleepnow,paradigmaticrelation,Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations,Hierarchicalrelations:sentencesarealsohierarchicallyordered,becausesentencesconsistofclauses,clausearemadeupofphrases,andphrases,inturn,arecomposedofwords.Sotheinnerlayeringofsentencesconstitutesitshierarchicalstructure.ThehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanbeanalyzedbymeansofICAnalysis.,ICAnalysis,e.g.HeisfromFranceHeisfromFranceisfromFrancefromFrance,ICAnalysis,OneoftheadvantagesofICAnalysisis-thatitcanrevealthestructuralambiguitye.g.naughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirlsboysandgirlsnaughtyboysPractice:Analyzethesentence“Theyareflyingplanes.”,ICAnalysis,Practice:PleaseanalyzethefollowingthreesentencesbymeansofICAnalysis:1.LittleTomrunsveryfast.2.Theseapplesareverysweet.3.Hisbrotherstayedathome.Dotheyhavethesamehierarchicalstructure?,ICAnalysis,1.LittleTomrunsveryfast2.TheseapplesareverysweetLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetveryfastverysweet3.HisbrotherstayedathomeHisbrotherstayedathomeHisbrotherstayedathomeathome,ICAnalysis,Butweknowthattheyareradicallydifferentfromeachother.Disadvantage:ICAnalysiscannotrevealthedifferencesamongsomesentences.,LabeledICAnalysis,1.LittleTomrunsveryfast/SLittleTom/NPrunsveryfast/VPLittle/AdjTom/Nruns/Vveryfast/ADVPvery/Advfast/Adv2.Theseapplesareverysweet/STheseapples/NPareverysweet/VPThese/Detapples/Nare/Vverysweet/APvery/Advsweet/Adj,LabeledICAnalysis,3.Hisbrotherstayedathome/SHisbrother/NPstayedathome/VPHis/Detbrother/Nstayed/Vathome/PPat/Phome/NButthismethodistooredundantandtroublesome,sopeoplemodifieditandusephrasemarkers.,PhraseMarkers,1.S2.SNPVPNPVPAPNVADVPDetNVAPAdjADVPAdvADVPAdjAdvAdvLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetLabeledbracketingisalsoappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentences.SNPAPAdjLittleNTomVPVrunsADVPADVPAdvveryAdvfast,4.3TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG),Thiskindofanalysisonlyanalyzesthestaticstructureofsentence,butnotdynamicstructure.NoamChomskyclaimsthatTGGrammarstudiesbothstructures.,TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG),AvramNoamChomsky,(themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,bornonDecember7,1928)isanAmericanlinguist,philosopher,cognitivescientist,politicalactivist,author,andlecturer.Chomskyiswellknownintheacademicandscientificcommunityasoneofthefathersofmodernlinguistics.Sincethe1960s,hehasbecomeknownmorewidelyasapoliticaldissident,ananarchist,andalibertariansocialistintellectual.Inthe1950s,Chomskybegandevelopinghistheoryofgenerativegrammar,whichhasundergonenumerousrevisionsandhashadaprofoundinfluenceonlinguistics.Hisapproachtothestudyoflanguageemphasizesaninnatesetoflinguisticprinciplessharedbyallhumansknownasuniversalgrammar.,TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG),第八届生成语言学国际学术研讨会(The8thInternationalConferenceofGenerativeLinguisticsintheOldWorld)(Aug.12-14,2010,BeingjingLanguageandCultureUniversity)Chomskyskeynotespeech:Povertyofstimulus:unfinishedbusiness（刺激的匮乏尚待努力的课题）他认为，儿童要习得语言要凭借两个条件，一是人脑先天机制，一是后天语言环境。在后天语言环境中，儿童听到的语言材料叫做“语言刺激”或“刺激”，这种刺激是以句子的形式出现的。作为刺激的句子的数量，即儿童听到的句子的数量可能很多，但是与他后来能听懂的和说出来的句子数量相比，实际上很少，是“匮乏”的。儿童后来能听懂的句子和能说出的句子的数量实际是无限的。对于这种语言输入匮乏，语言产出无限的现象，生成语言学家进行的长期研究已取得了许多成果，但仍有许多问题需要进一步研究。,TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG),NormChomskyssomeimportantworks:(1957)SyntacticStructure;(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry,Criteriaongoodgrammar,ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.,Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.,Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages.Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.Therearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombined.Chomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).,4.4Categories(范畴）,Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech),4.4.1Word-levelcategories,Majorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Aux,Con.,Examplesofsomelexicalcategories,Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined,MeaningInflectionDistributionNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.,4.4.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures,Phrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead-thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier-thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement-thewordsontherightsideoftheheads,Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det)N(PP)VP(Qual)V(NP)AP(Deg)A(PP)PP(Deg)P(NP)(Note:“”means“consistof”;()means“canbeomitted”;“”meansothercomplementoptionsareavailable),Phrasestructurerules,Phrasestructurerules,NP(Det)+N+(PP)e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirlsVP(Qual)+V+(NP)e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignmentsAP(Deg)+A+(PP)veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation,SpecifierXComplementHead,XP,XPrule,TheXPrule:XP(specifier)X(complement)Note:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.,XTheory(X-barTheory),XP(Specifier)XXX(complement),X(head)complement,specifier,XP(Phraselevel),X,XTheory(X-barTheory),Examples:thefishontheplatequitenearthestationthefishontheplatequitenearthestationfishontheplatenearthestationQuestion:WhatabouttheNPthestudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversity?,XTheory(X-barTheory),thestudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversitythestudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversitystudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversitystudentsoflinguistics,XTheory(X-barTheory),XP(Specifier)XXX(adjunct附加语)XX(complement),X(head)complement,specifier,XP(Phraselevel),Xadjunct,X,Coordinationrule(并列规则),Coordinationstructures-thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.Coordinationrule:XX*ConXNote:Xstandsfor“acategoryatanystructurallevel”.Theasterisk*indicatesthatoneormorecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon(=conjunction).,Coordinationrule,Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:1nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;2acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;3thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;4thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.,Phraseelements-Specifiers,Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAPandPP.,Phraseelements-Complements,Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase.Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,give;TheXPrule(revised):XP(Specifier)X(Complement*)Theinformationaboutawordscomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsubcategorization(次范畴化).,Phraseelements-Complements,Manysubcategoriesofverbs(UsingChomskysearlyrepresentationofcomplements).walk:V,_(Shewalks)like:V,_NP(Shelikesthedog)give:V,_NPNP(Shegivesthedogabone)give:V,_NPPP(to)(Shegivesabonetothedog)pretend:V,_S(fin)(Hepretendedhehadgonehome)suggest:V,_S(base)(Hesuggestedwegohome)intend:V,_VP(to)(Heintendedtogohome)help:V,_VP(base)(Hehelpedcleanup)tell:V,_NPVP(to)(Hetoldthemtocleanup)make:V,_NPVP(base)(Hemadethemcleanup)bet:V,_NPNPS(fin)(Hebetmetenpoundshewouldcleanup),Phraseelements-Complements,asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.”That/ifarecomplementizers(标补语);theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause;theunderlinedpartintheabovesentencesarecallcomplementphrase(CP).,ExamplesofsomeAs,Ns,andPspermittingCPcomplements,(Note:complementizierthat,whether;CPcomplementphrase),Modifiers(修饰语),Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.ModifierpositioninEnglish,TheexpandedXPrule:XP(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)(Note:differencebetweencomplementandmodifier),Sentences(theSrule),TheSrule:SNPVP,S,NP,VP,NP,DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence,SNPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection(Infl)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentencestenseandagreement.,InflP(=S),NP(specifier),VP(complement),Infl(head),Sentences(theSrule),Inflrealizedbyatenselabel,InflP（=S）,NP,VP,NP,DetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence,Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary,InflP（=S）,VP,NP,NP,DetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence,SNPAUX/InflVPNP(Det)(AP)N(PP)AP(AP)Adj(PP)(ADVP)ADVP(ADVP)AdvVP(Qual)V(NP)(PP)(S)(AP)(ADVP)PP(Deg)PNP,Phrasestructurerules,AUX/InflTense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog)TensePresentPastModalcan,may,must,will,shall,etc.PerfhaveENProgbe-ING,Phrasestructurerules,Practice:Pleaseusephrasestructurerulestowriteoutthetreediagramofthefollowingsentences.1.Thegirlisveryhappy.2.Sheputthebookonthedesk.3.Isuspectheisdishonest.,Transformations,Phrasestructurerulecannotsatisfactorilydescribesomelanguagephenomena,suchasyes-noquestion,wh-questionTransformation:aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Auxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructureitcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure-correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.,Deepstructure&surfacestructure,Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponent,TheXPrule,Deepstructure,transformations,Surfacestructure,Subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements,Wh-movement,Considerthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.,Wh-movement,Wh-movement-Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?,Wh-movement,CPNPCSAPNInflNPInflVPANVNPWhatlanguagecanyouespeake?,CPNPCSInflNPI