What is English(英语语言发展史).doc

What is English?History of the English LanguageA short history of the origins and development of EnglishThe history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc - from which the words England and English are derived.Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.Old English (450-1100 AD)Part of Beowulf, a poem written in Old English.The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100. Middle English (1100-1500)An example of Middle English by Chaucer.In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today. Modern EnglishEarly Modern English (1500-1800)Hamlets famous To be, or not to be lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare.Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published.Late Modern English (1800-Present)The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earths surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries.Varieties of EnglishFrom around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words froze when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British call Americanisms are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USAs dominance of cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English and Caribbean English.The Germanic Family of LanguagesEnglish is a member of the Germanic family of languages.Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.A brief chronology of EnglishBC 55Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar.Local inhabitants speak CeltishBC 43Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain.436Roman withdrawal from Britain complete.449Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins450-480Earliest known Old English inscriptions.Old English1066William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England.c1150Earliest surviving manuscripts in Middle English.Middle English1348English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools.1362English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time.c1388Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales.c1400The Great Vowel Shift begins.1476William Caxton establishes the first English printing press.Early Modern English1564Shakespeare is born.1604Table Alphabeticall, the first English dictionary, is published.1607The first permanent English settlement in the New World (Jamestown) is established.1616Shakespeare dies.1623Shakespeares First Folio is published1702The first daily English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, is published in London.1755Samuel Johnson publishes his English dictionary.1776Thomas Jefferson writes the American Declaration of Independence.1782Britain abandons its American colonies.1828Webster publishes his American English dictionary.Late Modern English1922The British Broadcasting Corporation is founded.1928The Oxford English Dictionary is published.Charles IWhen Charles I succeeded his father in 1625, friction with Parliament began at once. Charles believed in his divine right as king and struggled to control Parliament who resented his attempts at absolute rule. One of his first acts was to dissolve parliament in 1625, and again in 1626 after attempts to impeach the Duke of Buckingham over war against Spain and support of the French Huguenots. Charles forced an unpopular Ship Money tax to raise funds without the consent of Parliament. In 1628 Charles was presented with the Petition of Right a declaration of the “rights and liberties of the subject, which he reluctantly agreed to. However, in 1629 he dissolved Parliament again, imprisoned its leaders and ruled without a Parliament from 1629 to 1640. His advisers Earl Strafford and Archbishop Laud persecuted the Puritans, and provoked the Presbyterian Scots Covenanters to revolt when Laud attempted to introduce the English Book of Common Prayer.The Short Parliament, which met April 1640, refused to grant money until grievances were redressed, and was dissolved after just 3 weeks. The Scots then advanced into England and forced their own terms on Charles. The Long Parliament assembled under in November 1640 under John Pym, passed an Act that prevented it from being dissolved without its own consent. Laud and other ministers were imprisoned, and Strafford condemned to death. There was now direct confrontation between Charles and Parliament. After the failure of his attempt to arrest five parliamentary leaders on 4 January 1642, Charles, confident that he had substantial support among those who believed that Parliament was becoming too Puritanical and zealous, withdrew from London, and on 22 August declared war on Parliament by raising his standard at Nottingham and beginning the English Civil War of 1642 to 1648.The changing face of the United Kingdom.The United Kingdomis a union of four territories or nations: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It is a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as the Head of State.Devolution timelineMiddle Ages: In 1404, Wales briefly had its own parliament under Owain Glyndwr.TheLaws in Wales Acts, passed between 1535 and 1542, made Wales part of England.1603: The English and Scottish crowns united with the accession of James VI of Scotland to the English throne, as James I.1707: The Treaty (or Act)of Union united the parliaments of England and Scotland to form a single parliament meeting in Westminster. The two nations formed The United Kingdom of Great Britain.1800: The Irish Parliament voted to join theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain in the Act of Union(Ireland) - creating The United Kingdom of Great Britain andIreland.1886: A series of Bills to give Home Rule to Ireland were introduced at Westminster.1920: The fourth Home Rule Act was passed, effectivelycreating two states on the island of Ireland. NorthernIrelandwas established in six of the nine counties of the province of Ulster and became an entity within the UK. 1921: Northern Irelands own parliament came into being. 1922: The Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) was established. Northern Ireland chose to remain in the United Kingdom.1925: Plaid Genedlaethol Cymru, the National Party of Wales, was formed with the goal of securing, amongst other things, a Welsh-speaking Wales. 1934: The Scottish National Party (SNP) was formed,from the merger of the National Party of Scotland and the Scottish Party.1950s: The Labour Party gradually replaced the Liberal Party as the dominant political force in Wales.1960s - 70s: Demands for Scottish Home Rule, or devolution, gained strength after SNP election and by-election victories. In Wales, the strength of the UK Labour Party, especially in the south of the country, meant that the political impetus for devolution was always weaker than in Scotland.1972: Northern Ireland parliament was suspended and abolished the following year in favour of direct rule from Westminster.1979: Devolution referendums were held in Scotland and Wales. In Scotland, the referendum failed: although a majorityvoted yes, there was only a32% turnout and the rules required at least 40% of the electorate to vote for devolution. In Wales, the referendum resulted in a no vote.1997: Labour won the General Election and implemented its manifesto pledge to have referendums on devolution in Scotland and Wales.1998: Devolution referendums in Scotland and Wales produced yes votes. The Scottish Parliament returned to Edinburgh and the National Assembly for Wales (at that time called the Welsh Assembly) was founded.1998:The Good Friday Agreement revived the prospect of a return of devolved government to Northern Ireland, setting up theNorthern Ireland Assembly and power sharing Executive.2006: Devolution was extended in Wales.2007: Following several suspensions of devolution,the Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive were restored in Northern Ireland.KnighthoodKnighthood was about more than just fighting, it was also about chivalry. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, this meant good horsemanship, but by 1100 it had become a whole new way of life. Knights were expected to be brave, and honorable, to uphold the honor of women, and to protect the weak. Tales of chivalry were very popular during the Middle Ages, but even so, many knights failed to live up to these high standards.This was just the beginning of the young mans career as a knight. Knights protected the lords lands from invaders and fought in the lords battles against other lords. Medieval Background of the King Arthur LegendTo understand the “great misery of Britain” when there was no true king, students need knowledge of the warlike tribes attacking the Roman Empire, sacking Rome, and taking land. The Angles, Saxons, Huns, Vandals, Goths, and Franks split the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern sections. In this period of “Dark Ages,” beginning about AD 450, Britain had no king or emperor. The British Isles were in turmoil. The people longed for a leader to protect the poor and keep justice.By AD 476, many of the tribes had converted to Christianity and adopted the religion and customs of Rome. The Bishop of Rome (the Pope) had become the most important Church official whose power extended beyond church affairs. European monks lived as hermits or in monasteries isolated from the world. But St. Benedicts reforms encouraged monks to work together, to spread Christianity, and to help the poor. Benedictine rules influenced other types of monasteries and convents so that religion had a great impact on the daily life of people as well as the liturgy of the Church. Gregorian chant, beloved by Benedict, became the official music of theCatholic Church.With the advance of Christianity, the reverence for the Holy Grail, thought to be the cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, and other relics spread across Europe. The Quest for the Holy Grail inspired hundreds of knights to search for heavenly objects that only the holy and pure could find. This spiritual journey can be better understood when students realize that in the middle ages earthly life was seen