现代语言学自考资料.doc

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. 4/ What is language? 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomskys definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing. The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.There are three branches of phonetics. They are:Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.3. Organs of speech发音器官The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound. The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.4. Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions语音的书写形式宽式和窄式音标IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号II5. Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类a) Classification of English consonants英语辅音的分类按发音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z W T s V h Affricate 塞擦音：tFdVLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：m n N Glide滑音：w j按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齿音：f vDental齿音：W TAlveolar齿龈音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：VtFdViVelar软腭音：k g NGlottal声门音：hB) Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：Front vowel前元音：i: i e A a Central vowel中元音：: Q Back vowel后元音：u: u R: R a:按口形的大小分：Close vowel闭元音：i: i u: uSemi-close vowel半闭元音：e :Open vowel开元音：A aSemi-open vowel半开元音： R: Q R a:按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：i: i e A a : Q a:rounded vowel圆唇元音：u: u R: R按语音的长短分Long vowel长元音i: :a: u: R:Short vowel短元音i e A a Q u R在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：ei ai u a u Ri i e u6. Phonology 音系学Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Example:单词leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。7. Phone, phoneme, and allophone语音（音素）、音位、音位变体Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如p t.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.8. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. The former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。The latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.如top中的送气的p和stop中不送气的p。A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.如pen和ben。9. Some rules in phonology几条音系规则A) sequential rules 系列规则The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.B) assimilation rules 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.C) deletion rules 省略规则The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation超切分特征：重音、声调和语调Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.A) Stress 重音B) Tone 声调C) Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。 Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学Definition定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。2. Morpheme 语素The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。3. Types of morphemes 语素的分类a) Free morphemes 自由语素Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素 Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级-s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。实例：Tolerate 词根toler- 词缀-ateQuickly 自由语素quick 词缀-lyCarelessness 自由语素care 词缀-less 形成的派生词careless 词缀-nessAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.5. Morphological rules 形态学规则Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.6. Types of compound words 复合词的类型Noun + noun 名词名词 如：handbook, sunshineAdjective +noun 形容词名词 如：highway, sweetheartAdjective +noun +ed 形容词名词ed 如：white-haired, green=eyedVerb +noun 动词名词 如：pickpocket, drivewayAdverb +noun 副词名词 如：downtown, upgradeNoun +verb 名词动词 如：toothpick, snowfallVerb +adverb 动词副词 如：follow-up, kick-offNoun +adjective 名词形容词 如：world-famous, life-long-ing form +noun -ing形式名词 如：dining-room, reading-glassesOther forms 其它形式 如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you note7. Features of compounds1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名词而不是动词。3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.如hotdog, greenhouse等。4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.如running dog 重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。 Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1 What is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant a