名词和名词词组.doc

第三讲 名词和名词词组一，名词的分类 classification of nounsNouns can be classified according to word formation, lexical meaning and grammatical form. 1. Simple, compound and derivative nouns2. Proper and common nouns3.Count and non-count nouns 个体名词 boy house tiger 集体名词 family team 可数名词普通名词 物质名词 air rice 抽象名词 不可数名词专有名词二，名词的数 number forms of nouns Number is a grammatical category that indicates the change in the form of nouns and verbs, depending on whether one or more than one is talked about. 规则的复数形式构成法：一个名词如果表示一个或一样东西，它取单数形式，如pen，dog，church。如果表示两个或两个以上的这类东西，则需要名词的复数形式。构成复数，大多数是在单数形式后加-s或-es，有下面几种情况：1，在单数形式后直接加-s girl girls hat hats2，如单数名词以s，x，sh，ch或z结尾，需在后面加-es kiss kisses tax taxes brush brushes watch watches 3，以y结尾的词，变y为I，再加-es lady ladies story stories 如果y前面还有一个元音字母，则直接加-s day days monkey monkeys4，以o接尾的词，多数加-s demo demos inferno infernos 阴间，地狱 kilo kilos tempo tempos cello cellos memo memos banjo banjos 班卓琴 octavo octavos 八开本piano pianos canto cantos 篇，章 dynamo dynamos 发电机 tobacco tobaccossolo solos photo photos cameo cameos浮雕贝壳或宝石 ratio ratios以“元音字母+o”结尾的词，一概加-scurios rodeos bamboos tattoos但有少数以o结尾的词后要加-esecho, echoes embargo, embargoes jingo, jingoes 沙文主义者 torpedo, torpedoes veto, vetoes hero, heroes Negro, Negroes potato, potatoes mosquito, mosquitoes go, goes no, noes 其他以o结尾的此，一般既可加-s，也可加-eszero, zeros, zeroes halo, halos, haloes 日月周围的光晕 mango, mangos, mangoes motto, tornado, volcano, cargo, buffalo, commando 突击队5，以f或fe结尾的此，多数直接加-schief, chiefs reef, reefs 暗礁 cliff, cliffs cuff, cuffs 袖口 roof, roofs fife, fifes 横笛 belief, beliefs safe, safes gulf, gulfs strife, stifes但有几个名词，需变f为v，再加-es elf, elves leaf, leaves calf, calves thief, thieves shelf, shelves loaf, loaveshalf, halves life, lives self, selves wife, wives wolf, wolves knife, knives有个别名词，可加-s或-es hoof, hoofs, hooves 蹄 wharf, wharfs, wharves 码头 scarf, scarfs, scarves dwarf, dwarfs, dwarves beef, beefs, beeves staff, staffs, staves （二） 不规则的复数形式有些名词有不规则的复数形式 1，把单数形式稍加变化，成为复数形式：man, men alderman, aldermen 市议员 foot, feet foot, foots 残渣woman, women countrywoman, countrywomen goose, geese goose, gooses 熨斗mouse, mice dormouse, dormice （睡鼠 ） louse, licechild, children ox, oxen2，把单数形式用作复数形式（单复同形） 2.1动物名称通常用规则复数。然而，许多动物的名称有两种复数形式：-s和零复数。2.1.1规则复数bird, cow, eagle, hen, monkey2.1.2 通常是规则复数 elk（麋鹿） crab, duck2.1.3 规则复数与零复数并存 antelope, reindeer, fish, flounder（比目鱼） herring（青鱼 ）2.1.4 通常用零复数 bison, 美洲或欧洲的野牛 grouse, quail, salmon（鳟） swine2.1.5 永远用零复数 sheep, deer, cod（鳕） 2.2 数量名词2.2.1 名词dozen, hundred, thousand, million有另一个数量词作前置修饰语时，他们用零复数形式。Three dozen glasses two hundred people 以上四个名词后面接-of短语时，不论它们前面是否有不定数量词，通常用复数形式。Many dozens of glasses thousands of spectators 另外，注意以下组合： tens of thousands of people hundreds of millions of stars hundreds ( and hundreds ( and hundreds) of times2.2.2 表示长度的foot和表示重量的pound常用零复数，尤其是在它们之后接一个数词时：Shes only five foot two. 如果pound表示货币时，当它后面接一个数词时既可用零复数也可用规则复数。This ticket costs only two pound(s) fifty. 2.2.3 其他用零复数的数量名词 ten gross of nails gross=12 dozen a stand of pine. 高大植物或树的群丛： a fleet of 10 sail一支由十条船组成的船队2.3 国籍名词 以-ese结尾的国籍名词也用零复数形式 Chinese Japanese Vietnamese Burmese Swiss Portuguese Lebanese (三) 外来语的复数形式 许多名词原来是外来词，特别是一些科学上的术语，仍沿用原来的复数形式。但其中有些已经采用英语词尾-s或-es。 1. 拉丁语 1.1 以-us结尾的名词 大多数的复数形式是I/ai/ 如 stimulusstimuli alumnus-alumni bacillus-bacilli（杆菌） nucleusnuclei locusloci（地点，所在地；轨迹） cumuluscumuli（堆积；积云） corpuscorpora/ corpuses genusgenera（类，属） 用规则复数（-uses）的包括： apparatus, bonus, campus, caucus（政党的领导人秘密会议）, census, chorus, circus, impetus（推动力）, minus, prospectus（内容说明书，样张）, sinus（窦, 穴, 湾, 凹处）, status, virus, genius, magus（魔术家，占星师）, narcissus, incubus（梦魇，沉重的负担）, 具有两种复数形式的： focus, radius（半径）, terminus, fungus, syllabus, octopus, hippopotamus 1.2 以-a结尾的名词 复数形式大多为-ae/I：/ alumnaalumnae algaalgae larvalarvae 仅用规则复数（-as）的有： area, arena, dilemma, diploma, drama, era 具有两种形式的： antenna, formula, nebula, vertebra（脊椎骨） 1.3 以-um结尾的名词 外来语复数为-a corrigendumcorrigenda（勘误表）ovumova（卵子）bacteriumbacteria datum-data erratumerrata（错字勘误表） addendumaddenda（附录） desideratumdesiderata（迫切需要得到之物） 仅用规则复数的： album, chrysanthemum, museum, premium（额外费用，奖金） 通常是规则复数的： forum, stadium 具有两种形式的： aquarium, candelabrum, curriculum, maximum, medium, memorandum, millennium, minimum, moratorium（延期偿付）, podium（乐队指挥台）, referendum（公民投票）, spectrum（光谱）, stratum, symposium, ultimatum media常以“news media”的意义来指报刊，广播等，有时作单数看， 复数形式是medias。 strata是stratum常见的复数形式，有时strata也用作单数来指社会阶级。 除了单数的candelabrum（枝状大烛台）及其复数外，还有单数的candelabra，复数形式是规则的。 agenda和insignia（勋章）在英语里用作单数，复数形式是规则的。1.4 以-ex，-ix结尾的名词 复数形式是-ices。如index-indices。但是index和appendix具有规则和外来两种复数形式。规则复数形式indexes用来指一本书或其他出版物的索引；复数形式indices多半用来指indicators。Appendix作“附录”讲时，可用这两种里的任何一种；作“身体一部分”讲时，用规则复数。其他的还有：apex，vortex（旋涡），matrix。 仅用外来复数形式的有codex-codices （古代典籍的抄本；法律；规则；药典）2. 希腊语 2.1 以-is结尾的词 复数形式为-es oasisoases basisbases analysisanalyses axis, crisis, diagnosis, ellipsis hypothesis, paralysis, parenthesis, synopsis, synthesis, thesis, metropolismetropolises pelvis 2.2 以-on结尾的词 复数形式为-a criterioncriteria phenomenonphenomena 只用规则变化的： electron, neutron, proton（质子） 用两种变化的：automatonautomata/ automatons（自动机器）3.法语，意大利语和希伯来语 3.1 一些以-eau和-eu结尾的名词，如bureau和adieu，除了用普通的-s复数形式外，还可保留法语里的-x作为复数形式。同样的还有tableau（生动的场面；戏剧性局面），plateau，有些以-s和-x结尾的，单数形式的最后一个咝音不发音，其复数形式是规则的，读作/z/，但书写形式不变。如：corps, abatis, （铁丝网） chamois,（岩羚羊） rendezvous, faux pas, （失礼，失言） chassis, （底盘） patois （方言，行话） 3.2 以-o结尾的意大利词 外来语复数是-i，如tempotempi，只用规则复数的有：solo，soprano（女高音）。两者都可的有virtuoso（艺术品鉴赏家），libretto（歌剧等的剧本），tempo。Confetti（狂欢节撒的糖果，纸屑等）和其他意大利语的复数名词如ravioli，spaghetti等，通常在英语中作不可数名词处理，它们后面的动词用单数。 3.3 来源于希伯来语的名词：kibbutzkibbutzim （以色列的集体农场） 外来语复数是-im，通常两者都可的是：cherubcherubs/cherubim（小天使）， seraph （圣经上的六翼天使）（四）其他复数形式1. 某些词，字母，数字，斜体字，缩略语的复数形式：before, befores; perhaps, perhapss ; s, ss ; p, ps 9, 9s; 765, 765s Tribune, Tribunes; liang, liangs; Macheth, Macheths M.P., M.P.s; Iou, Ious; Bro, Bros; Prof, ProfsP, PP;(pages) 2. 专有名词和人名的复数形式：Mary-Marys, Maries; CatoCatos, Catoes; CharlesCharles, CharlesesJanuaryJanuarys, Januaries 带头衔的人名可有两种复数形式Miss AndersonMisses Anderson (formal) , Miss Andersonsthe Ladies Huntington or the Lady Huntingtons 3. 合成词的复数形式：最普通的方法，尤其在非正式用法中，是将复合词看作简单名词并将最后一个成分变为复数。3.1 复数通常在最后一个成分中表示： assistant directorassistant directors babysitterbabysitters breakdown-breakdowns merry-go-roundmerry-go-rounds forget-me-notforget-me-nots 3.2复数表示在第一个成分。这种情况尤其出现在复合词含有一个后置修饰语或词末小品词（particle）的时候。Commander-in-chiefcommanders-in-chief fathers-in-law maids-of-all-workTenants-at-will men-of-war passers-by brides-to-be editors-in-chief3.3 同位复合词，其中第一个成分是man或woman的词，复数形式同时表示在两个上面。Man servantmen servants man saintmen saints woman singerwomen singersWoman writerwomen writers gentleman farmergentlemen farmers 数的分类名词类别单数复数单数不可变名词不可数名词gold抽象形容词中心词The unreal专有名词Henry 复数不变名词“二合一”名词scissors以-s结尾的复数词thanks无标记复数名词people人称形容词中心词The rich专有名词The Alps规则复数名词dogdogs不规则复数名词浊化（voicing）和-s复数calfcalves元音变化（mutation）footfeetEn复数childchildren零复数sheepsheep外来语复数StimulusStimulibureaubureauxcherubcherubim三，单复数形式的意义绝大多数复数形式的意义和单数形式相同，只有数量上的差别。但是有些名词只有复数形式有意义，单数形式不存在，如：tidings, news, oats, trousers, mathematics, bowels, dregs, summons.另有许多名词，特别是不可数名词，只有单数形式有意义，只能用单数。如：ink, pork, paste, soil, lumber, haste, quiet, thunder, might, wisdom, courage, hunger有些名词的单数形式和复数形式意思不同，如：单数形式复数形式iron铁irons锁链sand沙sands沙地air空气airs神情salt盐salts泻盐ground地grounds房子周围的院子force力量forces武装部队advice劝告advices通知return返回returns利润good好处goods商品compass罗盘compasses圆规vesper傍晚vespers晚祷paper纸papers报纸，文件arm手臂arms武器color颜色colors旗帜custom风俗customs海关circumstance情况circumstances环境desert沙漠deserts应得的报偿（应）effect效果effects用品letter信，字母letters文学list表lists角斗场manner方式manners礼貌quarter四分之一quarters居住区scale刻度scales天平spectacle景象spectacles眼镜term学期terms条件part部分parts才干premise前提premises房屋建筑minute分钟minutes会议记录四，单位词 partitiveA phrase used to express quantity and used with an uncountable noun. There are three types of partitive in English. 下面是一些例子，可用来修饰一些特定的名词。1 和表示人的名词一起用：an army of children, workers, troops, beggars a colony of artists, Italians a band of patriots, robbers, fugitives, revelers a company of actors, acrobats, magiciansa batch of recruits, prisoners 一批 a gang of thieves, ruffians, politiciansa body of troops, unemployed men a handful of people, robbers, rebelsa bunch of green-horns, never-do-wells a host of students, barbariansa class of students a knot of friends, students 一小群人a pack of thieves, fools, rascals, liars a panel of expertsa parcel of servants, fools a party of guests, visitors a school of thinkers, artists a team of playersa troop of soldiers a troupe of actors, acrobats a galaxy of girls2.和表示动物的名词一起an army of herring, fogs, caterpillars毛虫 a band of jays 鸟；傻瓜a bevy of quails, roes,雌鹿 a brood of mice, chickens, hen, pheasants 一窝野鸡a cluster of cats a colony of gulls, ants, rabbits, sealsa den of foxes, wolves a drove of sheep, cattle, swine, an earth of foxes, badgers earth: 狐狸，獾等的洞穴a flight of swallows, pigeons, doves, any birds while flyinga flock of sheep, goats, camels, lions, rabbits, geese, sparrows, parrots, pigeons, etca herd of cattle, oxen, goats, horses, asses, deer, buffaloes, bucks, antelopes, other hoofed animals; elephants, wolves, giraffes, whales, seals, swansa hive of bees a host of sparrows, locustsa kennel of dogs a knot of toads 蟾蜍；癞蛤蟆a litter of pigs, puppies, cubs, whelps 小狗a muster of peacocks a nest of mice, rabbitsa pack of monkeys, hounds, wolves, dogs a pride of lions, peacocksa school of fish, whales, other aquatic animalsa shoal of mackerel, 鲭 perch 河鲈 herring, fishes in generala stable of horses a swarm of insects, bees, flies, eels, locusts, gnats 小昆虫a tribe of monkeys a troop of lions, kangaroos3.和表示事物的名词一起：a batch of letters, loaves, munitions 一批信件；一大批食物；一批军需品a block of buildings, shops a bunch of keys, grapes, celery, carrotsa chain of mountains a clump of bushes, treesa cluster of stars, grapes a collection of books, stamps, curios, relicsa flight of stairs, steps, arrows a ground of houses, villagesa heap of ruins a knot of ropes, hair a line of trees, cars, hills, wordsa pack of cards, ice, cigarettes a pair of shoes, trousersa pile of books, papers, bricks, stones a range of mountainsa series of books, stamps a stack of books, rifles, chimneysa string of beads, pearls a suit of clothes, underwear其他单位词：和物质名词一起an article of clothing, dress, furniture a ball of snow, string, woola breath of air a cake of soap a chip of glass, stone, wooda clod of clay a crop of barley, rice, wheat a cube of cheese, applean ear of barley, rice, wheat 一穗麦子 a flake/fleck of dust a grain of corn, rice, sand, salt a gust of wind a head of cabbage, lettucea heap of earth, rubbish a joint of beef, meat a lump of clay, coala morsel of bread, cake, meat 一口 a piece of cannon, chalk, furniture, luggagea roll of film, cloth a shower of rain, sleet a slice of bread, cake和抽象名词一起：an act of foolishness, kindness, mercy, insanitya barrage of editorials 接二连三的一堆社论 an attack of rheumatism, malariaa bit of news, advice a case of typhoid, murdera chain of events, revolts a display of affection, bad tempera fit of anger, madness, fever, coughinga glimmer of hope a gust of laughter, angera hint of hope an item of news, expense, cost, crime, misery, slaverya peal of laughter, thundera piece of advice, anecdote, evidence, expenditure, information, news, music, service a round of boxing-match, cards, golf, game, applausea scrap of information, gossipa salvo of applause salvo：保留条款；礼炮齐放a shout of laughter a spell of bad weather, illness, work, leisure 一段时间引申用法：a drop of comfort a crumb of respect crumb: 少许；少量a gallon of kindness a grain of sarcasm an ounce of strengtha scrap of courage a speck of comfort tons of evils五，名词的性 (gender) Gender refers to a grammatical distinction in which words such as nouns, articles, adjectives, and pronouns are marked according to a distinction between masculine, feminine, and sometimes neuter. 英语和其他相关语种不同。英语的名词、限定词、和形容词没有以屈折形式作标记的性的区别。性的分类性的类别例词相应的代词阳性brotherWho-he阴性sisterWho-she人称双重性doctorWho-he/she通性babyWho-he/she/itWhich-it集体familyWhich-itWho-they非人称阳性高等动物bullWhich-it(who)-he阴性高等动物cowWhich-it(who)-she低等动物antWhich-it(he/she)非生物非生物boxWhich-it5.1 阳性/阴性人称名词阳性人称名词与who-he，阴性人称名词与who-she之间有互指关系，这些名词分为两类，第一类的阳性和阴性之间在词形上没有标记，而第二类的阳性和阴性形式之间有派生关系。但派生后缀不能随意活用。5.1.1 词形上无性别标记，如 bachelorspinster boygirl brothersister fathermother kingqueen manwoman Mr.Mrs, Miss, Ms monknun nephewniece uncleaunt abbotabbess bridegroombride butlerhousekeeper (男/女管家) slovenslut (懒散的男/女人) HerrFrau (德语中的先生夫人) swainnymph, wench ladlass (少男/少女) wizardwitch 5.1.2 词形上有性别标记，如：a. 在阳性名词后加-essheirheiress priestpriestess poetpoetess hosthostess 此外还有：giant, god, jew, count, baron, prince, peer（贵族）, patron, steward, shepherd, prophet, author, tailor, viscount, manager等b. 把阳性名词的-ter或-tor改为-tress，如： hunterhuntress waiterwaitress traitortraitress sculptorsculptress actor, conductor, ancestor, monitor, translator 等。c. 把阳性名词的词尾-rer或-ror改为-ressadventureradventuress adultereradulteress launderer, murderer, sorcerer(男巫师) caterer(包办伙食者) emperor 一些表示亲属中男女成对的名词具有双重性别。例如：parent可表示fathermother；sibling表示brothersister。一些随意选用的表示阴性的名词，如poetess，authoress等不再广泛使用，有双重性别形式poet，author来代替。为了避免语言中的性别偏向（sexual bias）， 曾尝试引进中性形式（sex-neutral forms），例如用s/he替代she 和he，wo/man替代woman和man等。然而，由于s/he和wo/man仅用于书面语中，因而减少了广泛接受这些词的可能性。还有一些例子： supervisor代替foreman fisher代替fisherman firefighter代替fireman mail carrier代替mailman chair（person）代替chairman spokesperson代替spokesman homemaker代替housewife Member of Congress 代替Congressman5.2 人称双重性别（personal dual gender） 这类与代词who-he或she有互指关系的名词包括： artist, cook, doctor, enemy, foreigner, friend, guest, inhabitant, librarian, novelist, parent, person, professor, servant, singer, speaker, student, teacher, typist, writer 如果认为有必要说明某人的性别，可在名词之前加性别标记，如male student/ female student。尽管双重性别名词日益增多，但由于人们认为某种活动主要是由男性从事或主要是由女性从事的这种心理支配着人们频繁使用性别标记，如：a nursea male nurse; an engineera woman engineer.5.3 通性 （common gender） 通性名词介于人称和非人称之间。名词选择相应代词的范围是很广的，但这不理解为这些代词对所有的名词在所有的语境中都适用。一位母亲就不太可能用it来指她的婴儿或未成年的孩子；可是对某一个在感情上与那个孩子没有瓜葛的人或在科技文献中希望不作性别区分的人，却很可能选用这种非人称的形式： A child learns to speak the language of its environment. 5.4 集体名词集体名词与其他名词的区别在于集体名词用代词代替时，既可用单数的it和关系词which，也可用复数的they和关系词who，而这个名词的数不变。因此，在单数集合名词之后，也可用动词的复数形式。当然，这种形式在英国英语中更加普遍。The committee has met and it has/ have met and they have rejected the proposal.这种差别反映了着眼点的不同：用单数是强调这个集体是非人称的组合，而用复数则强调这个集体中个体的人。以下是集体名词的例子：army, association, audience, board, cast（演员表），clan, commission, community, company, corporation, council, couple, crew, crowd, department, enemy, faculty, family, federation, firm, flock, gang, generation, government, jury, herd, institute, majority, minority, opposition, party, population, staff, team, university下列集体名词通常仅以单数形式出现并与定冠词连用：the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, the church, the clergy, the elite, the gentry, the intelligentsia, the laity,(俗人；外行) the press, the public, the rank and file (普通成员；士兵) the youth (of today) 集体专有名词（collective proper nouns）the Commons (UK) Parliament the Vatican (the) Congress( US) the United Statesthe United Nations5.5高等动物（higher animal） 动物名称有阳性和阴性的区分是由于人对这类动物特别关心造成的：如cock和rooster用作阳性（用whichit 或whohe来代替），hen用作阴性（用whichit或whoshe来代替）。其他的例子还有buckdoe bullcow dogbitch gandergoose lionlioness ramewe 5.6 低等动物和非生物名词（lower animals and inanimate nouns）低等动物名词和非生物名词都用代词which和it来代替。然而，低等动物也可当作高等动物对待。所以我们可说“gold fish who swim around” “ bees who are busy”可用一系列恰当的性别标记来表示生物名词的性别，例如malefemale frog.普通性阳性阴性幼畜肉叫声居住地assJack-assHe-assJenny-assShe-assbraystablebearHe-bearShe-bearGrunt/growlcavebeedroneQueen-beeDrone/buzzHive/apiarycatHe-cat/tomcatShe-catkittenMew/purrcattleBull/oxcowCalf/steerheiferBeefvealBellowmooCow-sheddeerstaghindfawnvenisonbellowCovert/thicketdogdogbitchpuppyDog/meatBark/snarlkennelduckdrakeduckducklingduckquackduckpenelephantBull-elephantCow-elephantcalftrumpetfowlCock/roosterhenchickenchickenCrow/cackleroostfoxFox/he-foxVixen/she-foxcubbarkBurrow/holegoatHe-goatShe-goatkidGoats meatbleatgoosegandergoosegoslinggoose