国际贸易 经济 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式.doc

trade liberalization and patterns of strategicadjustment in the us textiles and clothing industrybelay seyoumu.s.a.international business review，issue 16 ,2007belay seyoumnova southeastern university, 3301 college avenue, ft. lauderdale, fl 33314, usareceived 2 december 2005; received in revised form 17 april 2006, 11 october 2006, 23 november 2006; accepted13 december 2006the overall environment facing the us tc industry will be one of rapidly changing market conditions and technological innovation. with the phase out of quotas and growing number of trade agreements, the us tc industry is being exposed to intense competition in export and domestic markets. this is likely to lead domestic industries/labor to demand intervention by national governments to mitigate the adverse impact of trade liberalization (standbury & vertinksy, 2004).in spite of the substantial job losses, the us tc industry remains technologically advanced partly due to increased productivity resulting from advances in technology and design capabilities. textile production is capital intensive and modern technology is essential to meet the increasing for high-quality products. over the last few years, us textiles and apparel firms have substantially increased their investment to maintain modern manufacturing facilities as well as improve production and marketing capabilities in order to maximize their inherent advantages to market proximity. in apparel, low skill production jobs have moved to low-cost locations offshore while the more skilled ones have been retained. to successfully adapt to the new environment, us tc industries need to capitalize on their sources of competitive advantage. they need to develop a more flexible operational arrangement, meet high standards in product innovation and generally develop a more change-seeking business culture (kilduff, 2005).an important survival tool for us tc firms is to expand their potential market by offering new product designs and product categories. manufacturers must try to bring a steady stream of products to market that are in line with the taste, preferences of the consumer. they can also expand their market potential by offering new product categories. two of the fastest growing apparel segments in the us, for example, have been the womens plus and mens big and tall segments (driscoll, 2004). plus-size apparel marketing was estimated at $47 billion in 2005 accounting for 20% of total apparel market. it is important to identify the firms target customers and assess whether the firm is successfully addressing their needs.us tc firms should target a narrow segment of the market that provides the best opportunity for success. in textiles, the focus should be on a few specialized segments such as carpets, nonwovens and technical textiles. similarly, apparel producers should increase their focus on core products, reduce vertical integration to shed overhead costs, and establish alliances with other firms to consolidate resources and increase market share.finally, in view of rising incomes and high growth rates in many developing countries such as china, brazil, and india, there are potential export market opportunities for us textile and apparel products. us export interests may be served by seeking improved access to the retail distribution systems of developing countries. us textile firms should also be able to use mexico to export to the european union and other countries, taking advantage of the mexico-eu trade agreement. since the conclusion of nafta, a number of asian and european firms have produced certain products in mexico in order to export to the us market.this paper suggests a demand pull model as a basis for developing a network structure in the clothing industry. in a demand pull model, consumer demand is the driver of sales unlike the supply push model whereby the manufacturer pushes goods to the retailer regardless of consumer demand.retail companies have become powerful due to their sufficient capital and marketing expertise to build loyalty among consumers. they are the lead firm in view of their central role in the organizational network. the lead clothing retailer integrates industrial capabilities such as sourcing of textiles, design, product branding and its relations with consumers enables it to keep abreast of fashion consumption trends.the lead firm conveys its requirements to these changing trends (changes in style, material requirements) to its suppliers or subcontractors (table 7). it also provides assistance with the purchasing of capital equipment and technology necessary to produce apparel in accordance with market demand. the fragmented webs of suppliers and subcontractors are bound together through information technology, online data sharing, joint product development, and collaborative forecasting, planning and replenishment activities. retailers will hold less inventory as shipments become smaller and more frequent since point of sale data is directly transmitted to the manufacturer/supplier who will produce and ship garments as it is needed. this model shows the role of the retailer as an intermediary integrating the functions of design, textile sourcing, branding and as facilitator of apparel production through a web of suppliers/subcontractors. such restructuring through technological improvements and information technology is one means of succeeding in an increasingly competitive environment. the horizontally structured, mass production methods no longer ensure future competitiveness.the lions share of the benefits from quota elimination is expected to accrue to china. its low labor cost, high productivity, range and flexibility of services as well as efficient supplier networks will make china the supplier of choice. about 87% of apparel executives that participated in a cotton sourcing summit in miami in february 2004, agreed that china will soon account for 5090% of all apparel sold in the us market (national labor committee, 2004). this means rationalization of production and a massive consolidation of vendors. other winners are likely to include india and pakistan in narrow segments of the tc industry. the elimination of quotas is also likely to lead to lower prices for consumers in view of the absence of quota costs which is often a significant part of the cost of tc sold in the us market. well-known brands may still hold market value since they are not subject to retail price deflation. it is important for tc firms to evaluate their internal capabilities such as sourcing, manufacturing, logistics, transportation etc. in order to develop an action plan for the post-quota world. exporters from latin america, africa and the caribbean are likely to lose market share to china since they largely compete on price (not quality) and lack the capability to produce high value added products. even with the introduction of safeguards on a range of products that are of export interest to these countries, their us market share has declined since the phase out of quotas. with the complete removal of quotas in 2008, it is difficult for these countries to compete on price. since the us government lifted quotas in 2002 on 29 categories, for example, chinas market share (in these categories) jumped from just 9% (2002) to 65% (2003) while prices paid by us retailers (for apparel from china) dropped by 48% (national labor committee, 2004). in cotton dressing gowns (quotas removed) chinas share in 2003 jumped from 25% to 39% while that of caribbean countries fell from 13% to a mere 3%. in the first 12 months after the phase out of quotas, chinas market share in apparel rose by 59% in value while that of many central and south american countries showed a sharp decline.what are the implications for tc firms in countries that are vulnerable to competition from china? first, they should capitalize on their proximity to the us market. their ability to offer lower transport cost, lower lead times as well as duty free entry to the us market may attract the fashion-oriented segment of the us industry. this will depend on access to good local transport infrastructure to get goods to market as well as advanced telecommunications systems to link suppliers and customers. local firms and governments need to collaborate in creating a climate which is conducive to business and to develop infrastructure to attract and retain tc industries that are so vital in generating exports and employment.secondly, low wages do not necessarily provide a comparative advantage with respect to china. firms should develop new capabilities in areas in which china does not have a comparative advantage (yarn, and silk non-apparel). this requires, inter alia, investment in modern production methods and development of competitive sources of local raw materials. even in product areas in which china is expanding its exports, developing country suppliers that enhance their skills, technology, supply chains and marketing capabilities (through joint ventures, licensing arrangements) faster than china can still maintain their shares to the us market.thirdly, an important strategic consideration that limits the competitive impact of china is the need on the part of multinationals to diversify their risk portfolios. us manufacturers and retailers are likely to adopt a diversified risk adjusted sourcing strategy that balances cost, speed to market as well as political and economic stability. they may not be prepared to rely on china for critical inputs beyond a certain threshold of risk. furthermore, mexico, central america and the caribbean could be attractive options for us companies in some fashion sensitive segments of the industry where quick response or fast turnaround is important.finally, existing us rules of origin requirements to qualify for free access to the us market have had unintended consequences. one of the requirements is that they have to use us yarn and fabric. this has had the effect of making their exports less competitive. the us may have to modify its rules of origin to allow developing countries to import from asia or other competitive sources without losing their preferential status.美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式贝蕾塞尤姆美国国际商务评论，第16期,2007年贝蕾塞尤姆诺娃东南大学，学院大道3301，劳德代尔堡，佛罗里达33314，美国2005年12月2日收到稿件；分别于2006年4月17日、2006年10月11日和2006年11月23日收到修改稿件；2006年12月13日正式录用美国纺织品和服装行业面临的是一个市场条件快速变化、科技不断创新的环境。随着配额的取消和越来越多贸易协议的出现，美国的纺织品和服装行业在出口和国内市场上面临着更为激烈的竞争。这可能会导致国内的企业/劳动者向本国政府施加压力要求进行需求的干预，通过这种做法来缓和贸易自由化带来的不利影响。（斯坦德贝瑞和维丁克思，2004）尽管美国国内纺织行业的就业人数大量减少，美国纺织品和服装行业依然保持着技术性的进步，主要是依靠在技术上和设计上的能力取得的进步使得生产率大幅度的提高。纺织品产品是资本密集型的，这种高质量产品需要现代的技术来满足增长的需求。在过去的若干年中，美国的纺织品和服装企业为了达到市场邻近的内在优势的最大化增加了相当大的投资，来保持现代生产的能力和改善生产和营销的能力。在服装方面，低技术含量的生产工作已经被转移到低成本的国家，而高技术含量的生产工作仍然在本国进行。为了能顺利地适应新的环境，美国纺织品和服装行业需要将他们的竞争优势变成资本。他们需要建立起一套更灵活的操作系统来满足生产创新的高标准，另外还要建立起更容易变化寻找的商业文化。（克里度夫，2005）美国纺织品和服装企业的一个重要生存手段就是通过提供新产品的设计和产品目录来扩大他们潜在的市场。生产者必须试着将一个稳定的产品系列引入到与消费者的口味和偏好相一致的市场中去。他们同样能通过提供新的产品目录来扩大他们的潜在市场。比如，在美国增长最快的两个服装部门是女式的加大服装部门和男式的大而高的服装部门。（迪瑞斯科，2004）加大型服装销售在2005年估计达到470亿美元，占整个服装市场的20%。重要的一点是识别企业的目标顾客和评定企业是否能成功的满足他们的需求。美国的纺织品和服装企业应该以一个狭小的提供最好的成功机会的市场部门作为目标。在纺织品方面，重点应该放在一些诸如地毯，非纺织而成的纺织品和技术类的纺织品上。同样，服装生产者应该将他们的注意力更多的集中在核心产品上，将垂直生产费用减少到企业的管理费用，和其他的企业建立联盟来巩固资源和增加市场的份额。最后，鉴于诸如中国、巴西和印度这样的发展中国家收入的增加和高增长率，对于美国纺织品和服装产品有许多潜在的出口市场机会。通过寻找已经改善的发展中国家的零售系统令美国获得出口利益。美国纺织品企业同样能够利用墨西哥和欧盟之间的贸易协定，通过墨西哥将产品出口到欧盟和其他的国家。由于北美自由贸易区协定的存在，为了能出口到美国市场，许多亚洲和欧洲企业已经在墨西哥生产某些产品。本文建立了一个需求推动模型，将其作为发展服装纺织行业的网络框架的基础。在这个需求推动的模型中，消费者的需求是销售的推动力，这个模型不同于供给推动模型，在那个模型中生产者不考虑消费者的需求而将产品提供给零售商。零售公司实力雄厚是由于他们有足够的资金和市场营销知识在客户间树立起信誉度。由于在整个组织框架中他们处于中心地位，所以他们是领导性的企业。这些领头的服装零售商具备整合诸如纺织品来源、设计、产品的品牌和客户之间的联系等产业之间的能力，使得他们能够始终跟随着时尚消费的趋势。领导性的企业将它们的需求传递到这些不断变化的趋势中（造型、原材料需求上的变化），传递到它们的供应商或者转包合同商那里。（图7）。它同样提供资金设备的销售和技术，这些都是使服装生产满足市场需求所必需的。通过信息技术、在线数据的共享、共同产品的发展，合作性的预测、计划和补货活动，各种供应商和转包合同商总是联系在一起。当运输变的越来越小型化、越来越频繁的时候，当销售的数据直接传送到生产和负责运输的服装生产商和供应商那里的时候，零售商将保留少量的库存。这个模型解释了零售商的作用，它是作为一个中间人，起到综合设计、纺织品来源、品牌的功能，而且通过一系列的供应商/转包合同商来作为服装生产的便利者。通过技术改进和信息技术进行的这些重新构建在竞争越来越激烈的环境中是一种不断前进的方式。水平的构建，大量的生产方法不再确保未来的竞争性。配额取消所带来的市场份额的大幅度增长被认为是有利于中国的发展的。中国低廉的劳动力成本，高的生产效率和产量，灵活多变的服务和有效的供应网络将使得中国成为供应商的选择。在参加2004年2月于迈阿密举行的棉花来源会议的服装执行官中，大约有87%的人认为中国在不久以后将占有美国市场所有销售服装的50%90%的份额（国家劳动委员会，2004年）。这意味着中国生产的合理性和拥有大量稳定的买主。在纺织品和服装行业的狭窄部门中，其他受益的国家可能包括印度和巴基斯