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韶关学院外语学院本科毕业论文 韶 关 学 院毕 业 论 文题 目：The Logical and Metaphorical Mechanism of English Polysemy学生姓名： 学 号： 系（院）： 外 语 学 院 英 语 系专 业： 英 语班 级： 指导教师姓名及职称： 讲师 起止时间： 2005年11月2006年5月（教务处制表）FOREIGN LANGUAGES SCHOOL Shaoguan UniversityDeclaration of Academic IntegrityI promise that the thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any institutes of higher learning and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published of written by another person, except when due reference is made in the text of the thesis. I understand that to do so would mean that I had committed plagiarism, and that it is my responsibility to be aware of the Universitys regulations on plagiarism and their importance.Signed: Date: The Logical and Metaphorical Mechanism of Polysemy in EnglishAbstract: As a common phenomenon in language development, polysemy is a pervasive enquiry of numerous linguists and a host of reasons have been exhibited to explain the trail of the developmental process of polysemy (change of meaning). For example, the primary meaning and the derivative meaning, the central signification and the secondary meaning are two items of explanations. However, they are only two aspects of the reasons that it emerges. In order to discover the mysteries in it, this paper sets out to deeper the discussing of such a question. According to many evidences, this paper proves that metaphor is the root of the development of polysemy (change of meaning), and it also researches on the process of polysemy. As we know, inference is a pattern and form of acquiring new results in logic. On the other hand, metaphor also has a function to create new meaning. Due to this similarity, this paper compares metaphor with logic inference and tries to find out the logic mechanism of metaphor. After all these works, the reason and the process of polysemy will be clear, and it is much easier to understand the phenomenon of polysemy and the development of peoples thought and his language.Keywords: metaphor; logical mechanism; metaphorical mechanism; polysemy 英语词汇中一词多义的隐喻机制和逻辑模式 摘要：作为语言的普遍现象，一词多义引起语言学家的重视，追究其发生的原因和发展的轨迹，语言学家们也提出了许多合理的解释。而本文认为隐喻化是一词多义发生和发展的原因，以此探讨其发生的特征和发展的过程。传统的语言学将隐喻看作是语言形式上的修辞，是语言装饰的手段，因而只是修辞学，文学和文体学研究的对象。近期的认知语言学和心理学的研究表明隐喻是人们对抽象概念认识和表达的强有力的工具，不仅是语言的，更重要的是认知的，概念的。语言学家以及心理学家都认为语言深深扎根于认知结构中。隐喻就是一种重要的认知模式，是新的语言意义产生的根源。隐喻利用一种概念表达另一种概念，而在这一认知事物的过程中，词汇中的一词多义随之产生了。本文不仅试图证明隐喻在词汇一词多义发展之中的作用，而且尝试运用逻辑学的推理模式分析和说明隐喻作用的模式和过程。关键词：隐喻; 隐喻机制; 逻辑模式; 一词多义Contents1.Introduction.12.The relation between polysemy and metaphor.12.1 Polysemy32.2 Metaphor43. The metaphorical mechanism54. Logic mechanism and polysemy 64.1 The relation between logic and metaphor 6 4.1.1 Deduction inference.64.1.2 Analogism64.1.3 Induction inference 65. Conclusion.7References.21Appendix.22Acknowledgements23111. IntroductionAs a common phenomenon in language development, polysemy is a pervasive enquiry of numerous linguists and a host of reasons have been exhibited to explain the trail of the developmental process of polysemy (change of meaning). For example, the primary meaning and the derivative meaning, the central signification and the secondary meaning are two items of explanations. However, they are only two aspects of the reasons that it emerges. In order to enlarge the knowledge and discover the mysteries in it, this paper sets out to deeper the discussing of such a question.When turn to the semantic motivation, the first entity that we may think of is metaphor, which is a study subject of many linguists. This paper not only replicates many linguists researches, but also tries to figure out the logic mechanism of polysemy. As far as we know, inference in logic is a pattern and a form to exploit new research field and obtain new theoretical establishments. On the other hand, metaphor is also a means to create new meaning. Due to this similarity, this paper compares the metaphor with the logic inference and tries to find out the logic mechanism of metaphor. It will prove that the process of metaphor bases itself on the form of logic. Consequently, after showing the pattern of polysemy (change of meaning), it is easier for us to understand how polysemy happens. According to the development of cognitive linguistics, this study utilizes forenamed approach to analyze the process of metaphor as well as applied the logical pattern to a novel aspect and layer. 2. The relation between polysemy and metaphor2.1 PolysemyAccording to Crystal (1993:54), while different words may have same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English. As a matter of fact, the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. Take the word “table” for example. It is a very common word in English. If we look it up in a dictionary, we will find that it has at least the following seven meanings:(a) a piece of furniture(b) all the people seated at a table(c) the food that is put on a table(d) a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.(e) orderly arrangement of facts, figure, etc(f) part of a machine tool on which the work is put to be operated ona level area, a plateau(g) This is the phenomenon of polysemy.Generally speaking, polysemy can be analyzed from the relation between its several meanings. According to Lu (1999:88), the concept of primary meaning is the meaning that a word gets when it appeared. On the other hand, the notion of derivative meaning is the meaning that a word gets during the language development. With the development of the society, variety of meaning will be given to one word. Its possible that some primary meaning will disappear or it will be replaced by derivative meaning. For instance, the primary meaning of “harvest” is the season of the year between summer and winter, lasting from the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice and from September to December in the Northern Hemisphere. However, borrowing the word “autumn” from French, that primary meaning has been almost forgotten, only its derivative meaning is used, which is “the act or process of gathering a crop”.As well as Lus, some other theories analyses this relation either. One polysemic word has many meanings and one meaning is in the central, which is called central signification. According to this meaning, other secondary meanings are amplified. Central signification (like hub) is among the secondary meanings (like spoke) and in the core position. The phenomenon we mentioned above is called radiation of meaning. For example, the central signification of the word “power” is: ability to act, and its secondary meaning is as below:(a) control over ones subordinates: the power of the government(b) delegated authority: exceed ones powers(c) physical strength: all the power of his muscles(d) mechanical energy: water power, steam power, the power is shut off(e) in mechanics-a device by means of which energy can be applied to mechanical purposes(f) mortal or intellectual force(g) a person of influence: a power in the community(h) one of the great nations of the world: the conference of the powers(i) a mathematical conception: the fourth power of x(j) an army or troop of soldiers(k) an effective quality of style in writing or oratory: a writer of great power(l) in optics-the degree of magnification of a lens, microscope, telescope, telescope, etc.Generally speaking, the secondary meaning is almost connects with the central signification closely. Thus, it is easier to find the root meaning in secondary meaning. As we all know that polysemy is being improved all the same now. How does it change is another academic concern. Developing with language itself, meaning of one word is impossible to be unchangeable. Nevertheless, it is the vocabulary which reflects the change of the languageold words disappear, then new words appear. The process of polysemy includes the change of the root meaning or the fact that some new meanings are added to an old word. However, using old word to express new meaning is a simple and direct way to satisfy the need of daily communication. Rosch (1999:46) believes that polysemy is a process that could not be avoided during the development of the language. The primary meaning and its derivative or the central signification and secondary meaning are living together is the phenomenon of polysemy.There are four procedures of its developing: appearing, recognizing, spreading, and regulating. In some particular circumstances, the speakers ought to use the secondary meaning so that listeners would recognize their verbal language. For example, before the invention of the typewriter, there is no word to express the paper that is type the typewriter. In that case, there are two ways to solve the problem, one is coin a new word, and the other is use an old word to express the new meaning. However using an old word is a more convenience and economic way. So some brave man used “manuscript” to express “the paper which is typed by typewriter”. And the hearer will link the relation between primary meaning of “manuscript-a book, document, or other composition written by hand” and the real context, then infer the secondary meaning of “manuscript”, that is “a typewritten or handwritten version of a book, an article, a document, or other work, especially the authors own copy, prepared and submitted for publication in print”. When the hearer accepts this secondary meaning, the agreement has been built between the speaker and the hearer. This agreement will spread in the language community, and more and more members of the community accept the new meaning. As long as the new meaning gain the right of admission of entering the vocabulary, it gets its position and fossilize in the community of the language, and then it regulate, and gain the success of development. 2.2 MetaphorAccording to Zhao (2000:96), since traditional rhetorics considers metaphor as a sort of activity of language speakers, the understanding of metaphor only covers in the field of embellishment. Evidently, it is not enough. However, this tendency made the traditional rhetor misunderstands metaphor, which could be a phenomenon of language acquisition, a process of cognition and one of the means people use to recognize and depict the world.It is believed by most modern metaphorical researchers that metaphor is a function of human cognition. According to Cooper (1999:125), during the course of using metaphor in cognitive activities, it cited old concepts to express new concepts and got closed concern to the context. Many phrases, idiom, poem even sections and chapters may employ metaphor, which all satisfy the need of people to probe into new scopes by old experiences.Does metaphor cause polysemy or influence it? According to Bolinger (1999:35), semantic motivation is a kind of association of the mind and it is also the reason why the new meanings be given to a words. Thus, the semantic motivation becomes the major problem under discussion. Many linguists believe metaphor is semantic motivation. For example, bonnet, coat, jacket are the words that express some kinds of clothes. However, because of some kinds of semantic motivation, these words in the phrases as “the bonnet of a car”, “a coat of paint”, “potatoes cooked in their jackets” express some different meanings. And the main semantic motivation is metaphor.After knowing the metaphor is semantic motivation, another question appears, ie. how the metaphor work in the process of the words getting new meanings? Many aspects combine the system of metaphor. According to Jackendoff (1983:78), an important character of metaphor is the contradiction between primary meaning and the context. Understanding the usage of metaphor, those contradictions are being avoided. As the example we mentioned in the last paragraph, there is a gap between the words “bonnet” and “cover” superficially, but there is also a bridge there, which is the similarity between the two items. When crossing such a bridge, the new meaning of the word is accepted. 3. The metaphorical mechanismMetaphor provides a stage to enlarge the meanings of the word and it creates polysemy. Kittay (1989:221) believes that metaphor is the main reason of the creation of meaning, is the system of expression, is the expressive entrance of emotion, and is the way to fix the gap of different words. According to Kittays (1989:54) assumption, metaphor has those characters which possible to refine the similarities of the words. Analyzing the example below, we extend (1) to (1a), (1b), and (1c). (1a) is similar with (1b). (1c) is the explanation of all the sentences.(1) Achilles was a lion.(1a) Achilles was like a lion.(1b) Achilles was as brave as a lion.(1c) Achilles was braveBut according to the analysis above, the merit metaphor contribute to polysemy not only involve the refining of meaning, but also the need of social communication, the need of thought and cognizing. As the time pass, the identifying by community, the meanings of word, and so forth will develop from one to million.A tool to detect the metaphor of word meaning is the dictionary. As the standard of meaning, it is helpful to find that polysemy always comes from the metaphor which has been dead. Sweetser (1990:9) studied the effect of the metaphor of the word when it developed. She said “If a word had a meaning A before, but has another meaning B now, we are sure that the speaker did not change the meaning when he woke up on June 14th 1066, in fact the result of the word inferring both A and B need a metaphor process, and the meaning A before will finally disappear.” (Sweetser 1990:9). Sweetser didnt manifest which meaning was metaphoricalized and can be bi-directional, because the extension of meanings only has two ways, one is from general to concrete, the other is from concrete to general. Sweetser intended to tell us that whatever way we choose, it is long way. In the society of regulation, to accept a new thing is difficult. Even the open society, it maybe obeys the standard of language. Because of the limitation of time and the short time when create a new meaning of a word, the trail of metaphor cannot be identified when the metaphor meaning of a word be added to a dictionary. For example, tally has the original meaning- cut, but now its meaning is “a stick on which notches are made to keep a count or score” or “A mark used in recording a number of acts or objects, most often in series of five, consisting of four vertical lines canceled diagonally or horizontally by a fifth line”, we can not see the relation with the original meaning.Actually, for it is too common, if we intend to record all the metaphor meanings in one dictionary is very hard and troublesome. However, base on the analysis above, a conclusion could be drawn that metaphor is not only the system of polysemy, but also has a very close and common relation with polysemy.4. Logic mechanism and polysemy4.1 The relation between logic and metaphorAs much as what has been discussed, it is easy to understand how metaphor works during a word gets its new meaning. Generally speaking, metaphor is one function of humans cognition. However, logic is an unchangeable pattern and formula which humans thought has to be followed. So in this paper, I try to use logic mechanism (pattern) to analyze and display the process of track of a word getting its new meaning (polysemy). It is known to all that logic mechanism includes concept, proposition and inference. Concept is the mode of thought to reflect the specific character of something. One concept, in fact, is one meaning of an expression of a word, and polysemy is one word reflect many different concept. Proposition is the thought mode to reflect the situation of something by sentences. Inference is a sequence of proposition, it infer one consequence by one and more than one propositions. Since only inference has the ability to acquire new meanings, it becomes the most important target that will be analyzed below. In fact, it will be proved that inference is also used in metaphor to get the new meaning. Violating the logic mechanism, the metaphor is unable to works.There are three kind of inferencededuction, analogism and induction.4.1.1 Deduction inferenceAccording to Wu (2000:78), deduction inference is an inference by reasoning from the general to the specific. In logic, we use this way to get some new knowledge from the general, meanwhile in cognitive process, it is also a kind of logic mechanism which metaphor follows to give a new meaning to a word, which is how polysemy happens. For example, allergic has the original meaning of “an abnormally high sensitivity to certain substances, such as pollens, foods, or microorganisms. Common indications of allergy may include sneezing, itching, and skin rashes.” But it got a new meaning of “an adverse sentiment; antipathy.” The mechanism of the inference is if A is allergic (O) with B, than A does like (P) B. According to this inference, we finally form another meaning into allergic. That is the process of deduction. We also can use symbol to see this process Ax(OxPx). There are also many other words are unde