写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较ppt课件.ppt

DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrast 1 Comparisonandcontrastaretwothinkingprocessesweconstantlyperforminourdailylife Wemightcompareandcontrasttwocities twoproducts twobooks twoplaysorfilms etc althoughcomparisonusuallyindentifiessimilaritiesandcontrastpointsoutdifferences thetwoarestructurallysimilarandcanbediscussedtogether Thepurposeofcomparingorcontrastingistounderstandeitherofthetwothingsmoreclearlyand attimes tomakejudgmentsaboutthem 2 Subject by subjectPattern 1 stressiscausedbydailyhavingtocontendwithcrowdsofpeopleandrestrictedspace 2 Travelinrushhourcanbearealheadache 3 Pollutionofvariouskindsistheresultofindustrialization 4 Carsspewtoxicfumesintotheatmosphere 5 Noisebellowsoutfromeveryside 1 Herethepaceoflifeisgentle 2 Thereistimetoreflectonthebeautyoftheworld 3 Inavillage lifeisclosertonature Thechangingseasonscanbeclearlyobserved 4 Therisamplespaceforeveryone andfreshairtobreathe 3 Subject by subjectPattern ForAmericans alongtime maybeanythingfromfortyyearstofortyminutes dependingonthecircumstances ToanAmericanbusinessmanaproposalthatcouldbecompletedwithinfortyyearsmightbe toofarintothefuture tobeconsidered Amotoristwhogetsinvolvedinatrafficaccidentwouldbeingreattroublewiththepoliceifhewaitedtwenty fourhourstoreporttheaccident Anhourwouldbetoolongatimetobelateforabusinessappointmentoradate Americansaresotime consciousthatpromptnessisnotonlyavirtue itisanobligation 4 Subject by subjectPattern Butmanyothercultureshavenosuchconceptof alongtime DuringWWII alocaltruckdriverarrivedbreathlesslyatmilitarygovernmentheadquartersreportthatamurdererwasrunninglooseinhisvillage Underquestionhetoldthemthemurderhadoccurredseventeenyearsearlierandthatthemurdererhadremainedunmolestedinthevillageallthetime InaSouthAmericancity anAmericanwasaskedtopresentimmediatelyhiscredentialstoalocalofficialandwaskeptwaitingoutsidehisofficeforalmosttwohours Forsuchpeople promptnessisnotonlyunreasonablebutalsoirritating TheyoftenwonderwhyAmericansmakesuchafussaboutit ToaSouthAsianperson alongtimemaybe1 000years orevenforever 5 A Americans conceptof alongtime Examples 1 2 3 Attitudestopromptness B Othercultures conceptsof alongtime Examples 1 2 3 6 Summary Insubject by subjectpattern wediscussthetwosubjectsseparately thatistosay wediscussallofthecharacteristicsofsubdivisionsofthefirstsubjectinthefirsthalfandthenpresentallthecharacteristicsoftheotherinthesecondhalf Theaspectsexaminedinthetwosubjectsshouldbethesameandinbothparts weshouldfollowthesamelogicalorderforeachsubject 7 Point by pointPattern Lifeinthecityisquitedifferentfromlifeinthesuburbs Peoplelivinginthecityareconstantlyexposedtothehustleandbustleofurbanlife However lifeinthesuburbsisgenerallyquietandcasualthanthatinthecity Ifcitydwellerswanttoseetreesandgrass theyhavetogotooneofthepublicparks Ontheotherhand thestreetsofmanysuburbancommunitiesarelinedwithtreesandeachhousehasitsowngrassyyard Apersonlivinginthecityisclosetomanysourcesofentertainment butasuburbandwellermustgointothecityforentertainment 8 Summary Inpoint by pointpattern thewritercomparesandcontrastsbothsubjectsitemafteritem Hestructureshisparagrapharoundpointsofcomparisoninsteadofsubjects movingbackandforthbetweenthesubjects Thespecificsofbothsubjectsareplacedclosetogetherfordirectandimmediatecomparisonandcontrast andtransitionsareoftenusedsoastoavoidabruptswitchingbetweenthetwosubjects Thepoint by pointpatternworksbestwithsubjectsthatcontainalotofpoints Itcanbringintosharpfocusthesimilaritiesanddifferencesforthereadertoseeashereadsalong 9 AbriefconsiderationofEgyptianmythologyandthemythologyoftheGreeksisenoughtoconvinceusoftherevolutioninthoughtthatmusthavetakenplacefromoneagetotheother TheEgyptiangodshadnoresemblancetoanythingintherealworld theGreekgodswerefashionedafterrealGreekpeople TheEgyptianartists interpretationsofthedivinewerehorridbestialshapesthatcombinedmen sheadswithbird sbodiesorterrifyingnightmares ThemonstrositiesofaninvisibleworldwerewhattheEgyptiansworshiped TheGreekinterpretationofdivinityisnotsodarkapicture 10 TheGreekswerepreoccupiedwiththevisibleworld Theyfoundtheirdesiressatisfiedinwhattheycouldactuallyseearoundthem TheancientstatuesofApollo forinstance resemblethestrongyoungbodiesofathletescontendingintheOlympicGames GenerallytheGreekartistsfoundtheirgodsinidealizedbeautyorintelligenceofactualhumancounterparts Theyhadnowishtocreatesomehideousfantasythattheycalledgod 11 Linkingdevices AbriefconsiderationofEgyptianmythologyandthemythologyoftheGreeksisenoughtoconvinceusoftherevolutioninthoughtthatmusthavetakenplacefromoneagetotheother TheEgyptiangodshadnoresemblancetoanythingintherealworld theGreekgodswerefashionedafterrealGreekpeople AbriefconsiderationofEgyptianmythologycontrastedwiththemythologyoftheGreeksisenoughtoconvinceusoftherevolutioninthoughtthatmusthavetakenplacefromoneagetotheother TheEgyptiangodshadnoresemblancetoanythingintherealworld whereastheGreekgodswerefashionedafterrealGreekpeople 12 Linkingdevices TheEgyptianartists interpretationsofthedivinewerehorridbestialshapesthatcombinedmen sheadswithbird sbodiesorterrifyingnightmares ThemonstrositiesofaninvisibleworldwerewhattheEgyptiansworshiped TheGreekinterpretationofdivinityisnotsodarkapicture TheEgyptianartists interpretationsofthedivinewerehorridbestialshapesthatcombinedmen sheadswithbird sbodiesorterrifyingnightmares ThemonstrositiesofaninvisibleworldwerewhattheEgyptiansworshiped TheGreekinterpretationofdivinitystandsinoppositiontothisdarkpicture 13 Linkingdevices TheGreekswerepreoccupiedwiththevisibleworld Theyfoundtheirdesiressatisfiedinwhattheycouldactuallyseearoundthem TheancientstatuesofApollo forinstance resemblethestrongyoungbodiesofathletescontendingintheOlympicGames TheGreekswerepreoccupiedwiththevisibleworld UnliketheEgyptians Theyfoundtheirdesiressatisfiedinwhattheycouldactuallyseearoundthem TheancientstatuesofApollo forinstance resemblethestrongyoungbodiesofathletescontendingintheOlympicGames 14 Linkingdevices GenerallytheGreekartistsfoundtheirgodsinidealizedbeautyorintelligenceofactualhumancounterparts Theyhadnowishtocreatesomehideousfantasythattheycalledgod GenerallytheGreekartistsfoundtheirgodsinidealizedbeautyorintelligenceofactualhumancounterparts IndirectcontrasttotheEgyptians Theyhadnowishtocreatesomehideousfantasythattheycalledgod 15 Summary Linkingwordsandphrasescanindicatecontrastandclarifytheshiftfromonesidetotheother Theyplayanimportantroleinensuringasmoothandcoherentflowfromonesubjecttoanother orfromonepointtoanotherinparagraphs 16 DevelopmentbyCauseandEffect 17 Attheendoftheunityouwill Beabletorecognizecharacteristicsandorganizationalpatternsofcauseandeffectinparagraphwriting Beacquaintedwithrelevantlinkingdevicesincauseandeffectwriting andBeabletowriteeffectiveparagraphsofcauseandeffectaccordingtotheinstructionsgiven 18 Causeandeffect isregardedasalogicalpatterncommonlyusedinexplanationandargumentation especiallywhenweexplorepossibleconnectionsbetweenanaction eventanditsoutcome orbetweencausesandresultsofanevent action 19 Sample1 OneofthemaincomplaintsofcityresidentsintheUSisthelackofparking Thisproblemispartlycausedbyalltheabandonedcarsonthestreets Ithasbeenestimatedthatoveronemillioncarsareabandonedonthestreetsofthecities Eachyear approximatelyathirdofthosecarsareremovedanddestroyed Therestofthecarswhicharenotremovedtakeupparkingspacesandmakeneighbourhoodlookrun down Asurveyshowsthat 20 eventhoughthecitygovernmentofLosAngelesspendsabout30milliondollarstotowawayanddismantleabandonedvehicles itisalwaysfightingalosingbattleasmoreandmorecarsareconstantlycomingofftheproducingline InBoston ontheotherhand theproblemhasbeendealtwithbyanon profitgovernmentalagency whichusesthemoneyfromtherecyclingofthementalinthecarstopayforthecostoftowingthem TheprograminBostonsoundsgoodalthoughithasnotcompletelyreachedfinancialindependencefromthefederalgovernmentyet Untilatrulyself sufficientprogramforremovingoldcarsisdeveloped itwillremainaseriousproblem 21 Questions 1 Whatisthetopicoftheparagraph 2 Whataretheorganizationalcharacteristicsoftheparagraph 3 Inwhatkindoforderarethecausespresented 22 Thisparagraphisdevelopedaroundtheproblemof thelackofparking complainedaboutbyUScityresidents Theparagraphisorganisedonapatternofsingleeffectandmultiplecauses Aftertheproblemisclearlypresentedatthebeginning therestoftheparagraphisdevotedtotheexplorationofitscauses Altogetherthreemajorcausesarediscussed fromtheobviousfactoftheabandonedcarstakingupparkingspacestotheunderlyingfinancialheadaches Inthisway thewritingshowsalogicalcause and effectpattern whichmightconsequentlyattractmoreconcernoreffortsintheproblem ssolution 23 CausesOveramillioncarsareabandonedonthestreets Morecarsareconstantlybeingproduced Bothcitygovernmentsorgovernmentalagencieshavefinancialheadaches EffectLackofparkingincities 24 Summary ThesampleparagraphpresentstheproblemoflackofparkinginsomeoftheUScitiesbeforeitgoesontoexplorethecausesoftheissue Thispatternoforganizationissingleeffectvs multiplecauses Inthispattern youmaystatetheissue i e theeffect rightatthebeginning andthenguidethereadertotrackdownsomeimportantevidenceforthecauses Thecausescanbetracedfromthemostthemostsuperficialtothedeepest 25 Fromthemostdirecttothemostindirect etc Intheend itisadvisabletosuggestsomesolutiontotheproblem sothatthewholewritinghassomesignificance 26 Sample2 SincetheterroristsstrucktheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagon theAmericanshavebeenwonderinghowtorespondtothefrequentofficialwarningthatterroristsareplanningnewattacksinthenearfuture Theyfeelanxiousandpanickybecausetheycan tcalculatetheoddsincludingthoseofexplosivesorletterswithanthrax Butitiscriticalthatthepresident saidesavoidanytemptationtousesecurityprecautionsasanexcuseforpoliticalerrors whichwasalreadymadesomewhere 27 Thereis ofcourse thedangerthattoomanywarningscouldbecomemerebackgroundnoise andthatsomewheredowntheroadthepublicwouldwindupignoringtheonethatreallymatters Thepubliccannotjudgeonaday to daybasiswhetherthoseassessmentsarebeingmadecorrectly Butthenationisbetterofffrightenedandinformedthanlefthappilyinthedark 28 Questions Whatproblemisaddressedinthisparagraph Andinhowmanyaspectsisthecauseoreffectexplored Doesthisparagraphcomestraighttothepointofcauseoreffectabouttheissue DoesitfollowthesamepatternasSample1 Ifnot whatarethedifferences 29 1 Theproblemaddressedreferstotheissueofterroristattacks Thisissuehasbroughtaboutatleastthreemajoraspectsofconsequenceoreffect Theparagraphaddressesthecauseratherthaneffectsrightatthebeginning No itfollowsapatternofsinglecauseandmultipleeffects UnlikeSample1inwhicheffectisaddressedfirstandcausesaretracedbackwards Sample2statesbrieflyatthebeginningtheissueofterroristattacksasadirectissue andthendwellsonthreemajoreffects somefactualandsomepredicted 30 Effect1 Effects2 Effects3 31 Summary YoumayhavenoticedthedifferenceinorganizationbetweenSample1andSample2 InSample2thewriterbrieflypresentstheissueofterroristattacksasadirectcause andthendwellsuponthreemajoreffects fromthematter of facttosomethingpredicted Thisiscalledthesingle cause and multiple effectpattern Asisobserved thewriterstructureshisparagraphmainlyaroundpointsofeffectsinsteadofcauses 32 Summary Reasoningalongthelogicalsequenceofevents LikeSample1 transitionsarealsousedsoastoavoidabruptideadevelopment Thesingle cause and multiple effectpatternworksbestwithissuethatturnouttobefar reachingorinfluential Itcanbringintosharpfocustherelationshipbetweencausesandeffectsofanissueunderdiscussion 33 34 Developmentbyclassification Inlife wealwaysfindexamplesofclassificationanddivision Food drinks clothes animals plants people teachers books etc Canallbeclassifiedinvariouswaysforeaseofunderstanding Inthisunit wearegoingtostudythefeaturesandorganizationpatternsofclassificationandtheuseofrelevantlinkingdevices 35 Sample1 Thetimemoststudentsspendstudyingforatestcanbedividedintothreedistinctphases PhaseOne oftencalledthe Noproblem phase runsfromthedaythetestisannouncedtoapproximatelyforty eighthoursbeforethedreadedexamispassedout DuringPhaseOne thestudentiscarefree smilingandenjoyinglifeasusual Whenaskedbyclassmatesifhehasstudiedforthetestyet hisreplywillbeanassured Noproblem DuringPhaseOne noactualstudyingtakesplace 36 PhaseTwoisenteredtwodayspriortothetest Itissometimesreferredtoasthe Tomorrow phase sincestudentsoftenreplytoquestionswiththestatement I llstudytomorrow DuringPhaseTwo again noactualstudyingtakesplace butheisconsideringit PhaseThree thefinalphase isenteredtwelvehoursbefore ZeroHour Thisistheactualphase characterizedbysweatypalms nervoustwitches 抽筋 andconfusedmentalpattern PhaseThreeisalsotermedthe Shock phasesincethestudentsisshockedtodiscovertheimminentnatureoftheexamandtheamountofmaterialtobestudied Hewillprobablybeunabletosleepandwillmumblemeaninglessphrases Thisphasewillnotenduntiltheexamisover 37 CompletetheoutlineaccordingtotheorganizationofSample1 Subject thetimemoststudentsspendstudyingforatestTopicsentence Thetimemoststudentsspendstudyingforatestcanbedividedintothreedistinctphases Division 1 PhaseOnerunsfromthedaythetestisannouncedtoapproximatelyforty eighthoursbeforetheexamispassedout 2 Phasetwoisenteredtwodayspriortothetest 3 Phasethree thefinalphase isenteredtwelvehoursbefore ZeroHour 38 Sample2 Studentsinourschoolfallintothreegroupsaccordingtotheirdifferentintentionsoftakingpartinsports Manystudentsgototheplaygroundwhentheyfeeltiredafterafewhoursofstudy Thesestudentsputmuchmoreemphasisontheirstudyefficiencythanonthefunofsports Theyjustwanttogobacktotheirclassroomsfromtheplaygroundwithcleareradquickermind Thustheydon tactuallycarewhethertheycanenjoythemselvesonthesportsgroundornot Studentsthatmakeupthesecondgrouparerealsportslovers Sometimestheyevenputasidetheirstudyforagame Theytakepartinthesportthatintereststhemmost nocaringwhetheritismostbeneficialtotheirhealth 39 Sample2 Thethirdgroupwantsbeautyfromsports Boyswanttobecomestrong girlswanttobeslimandgraceful Thosewhoconsidersportstheonlywayofreducingweightalsobelongtothisgroup Theyareverycarefullychoosingthekindofexercisetheydo andtheyareafraidthatcertainsportsmayruintheirfigures Nomatterwhichgrouptheybelongto theyallbenefitformsports 40 Questions Whatisthetopicsentence Whatisthesubjectclassified Howmanygroupshasitbeendividedinto ArethegroupsarrangedinthesameorderasinSample1 Ifnot inwhatorderaretheyarranged 41 Answers InSample1groupsarearrangedintimeorder whileinSample2 groupsarearrangedintheorderofdegree i e fromthelessspecificandstrongintentiontomorespecificandstrongerones 42 outline Topicsentence studentsinourschoolfallintothreegroupsaccordingtotheirdifferentintentionsoftakingpartinsports Division 1 studentswhogototheplaygroundwhentheyfeeltiredafterstudy 2 realsportsloverswhoevenputasidetheirstudiesforagame 3 studentswhowantbeautyfromsportsConcludingsentence Nomatterwhichgrouptheybelongto theyallbenefitformsports 43 Summary Aparagraphofclassificationusuallyconsistsofatopicsentence abody andaconcludingsentence Thetopicsentencehasaclarsubjectandindicatesthenumberofcategoriesintowhichyouaregoingtoclassifythesubject Thebodyexplainseachcategoryonebyoneinalogicalorder Itmaybetheorderoftimesequence orfromthelessspecifictothemorespecific orfromthelessimportanttothemoreimportant andsoon Theconcludingsentence thoughitcanbeomittedinsomecases bringreader sattentionbacktothetopic 44 II Principlestoclassify bywhichtoclassify Dependingonyourneedandthepurposeofwriting youcanclassifyasubjectinseveralwaysbyusingdifferentprinciples e g 1 toclassifythefriendsyouhavea findoutthecategoriesthatcanbeusedtodiscussthesubject e g age young middle aged oldlengthoffriendship new old lifelongmaritalstatus unmarried married divorcedsocialstatus averageJoeandJane mid levelmanagement high rankingofficialsb thenfindthemostrelevantcategory 45 2 todescribeyourprofessors1 findoutthecategoriesthatcanbeusedtodiscussthesubject accordingto agegender personality teachingstyle ranking popularity styleofdressandaccent b thenfindthemostrelevantcategoryTowriteabouteffectivenessofteaching youmaychooseteachingstyle Towriteaboutthelivingconditions youmaychoosestyleofdress 46 Practice Lookatthefollowingoutlines anddeterminewhethertheyareappropriatelyclassified 1 Subject moviesDivision actioncomedyromancehorrorComment notcomplete More tragedy sciencefiction etc 2 Subject friendsDivision newfriendsoldfriendslife longfriendsfemalefriendsComment female overlapswithothercatergories shouldbeexclusive 47 3 Subject newspapersDivision wrappinggarbagemakingpaperplanesreadingeditorialComment noclearprinciple thereshouldbeonlyone e g theuseofnewspapers notthecontent 4 Subject collegeclassesDivision enjoytoleratemorningdislikeComment noclearprinciple dividedaccordingtostudents attitudestothem thetimewhentheclassisgiven 48 Summary Toachieveeffectivenessinclassification wemustfollowsomeimportantprinciples 1 selectoneappropriateprincipleasthebasisofeachclassificationaccordingtoyourpurposeofwriting andsticktoitwithinthewholeparagraph 2 Makesurethatthecategoriesareexclusive Theyshouldnotoverlap 3 Donotomitanyimportantcategories Theclassificationshouldbeexclusive 49 IV ExpressionsoftenusedTherearedifferentkindsofpeopleinsocietyAnygoodlibraryshouldcontainthreetypesofmaterials UniversitiesinChinacanbedividedintotwokindsccordingtotheownership Busdriversinthiscityfallintothefollowingcategories types thefriendly theindifferent andthemean 50 A theseB thirdC FinallyD beforeE typesF ThenG ThoughH howeverI EventhoughJ If Departmentstoresusuallyhavethreedifferent 1 ofsalesmen themislocated theeager beaver 做事积极 勤奋的人 andthedaydreamingone Themislocatedsalesmanisfrequentlyfoundthreedepartmentsawayfromwhereheshouldbe 2 hemightnoticeyouwaitingpatientlyinhisdepartment itusuallytakeshimatleastfiveminutestowalkbacktohisdepartment 3 uponhisarrival hetellsyouthatthestoreiscompletelyoutoftheitemthatyouwanted Theeager beaversalesman 4 isalwaysreadytosellyouanything 5 youmightjustbepassingthroughhisdepartment youcanbesurethathewillstopyoutoseeifyouneedhishelp 6 youleave hewillprobablybetryingtosellyousomethingthatyoudon tneed likeanautomaticgaragedooropenerforthegaragethatyoudon thave The 7 typ