学术英语写作(杨新亮,熊艳)introduction P203~205.doc

Introduction 203 -208页 Inrecentyearstherehasbeenconsiderableinterestinexploringthenatureofexpertperformanceacrossdomains(e.g.,Ericsson,Hoffman,Charness,&Feltovich.2006;Ericsson & Williams, 2007).Forexample,scientistswithaninterestinsportshave analyzedtheperceptual cognitiveskillsunderpinninganticipationinthisdomainand identifiedhowtheseprocessesareacquiredthroughprolonged engagementinpractice(forreviews,seeHodges,Huys,&Starkes,2O07:WilliamsFord.2008:WilliamsWard,2007).The scientificstudyofskillacquisitionhasa longhistoryinexperimentalpsychology,datingbacktotheearlystudiesofBryanandHarter(1899).Inmorerecenttimes,Poulton(1957)wasthefirst tosystematicallydiscriminatebetweendifferenttypesofanticipationjudgementsusingexperimetalmethodscommonto thisdiscipline.Thescientificstudyofanticipationasafieldofinquiryinitsownrightinsportpsychologyhasamuchshorter history,emergingprimarilyin1970s(farahistoricaloverview,seeWilliams.Davids.&Williams,1999).Themajorityofsportpsychologistsworkinmulti_disciplinarydepartmentswhereresearchintraditionaldisciplineareas,suchasphysiology.psychology.andbiomechanics, often developssomewhatindependentlyofacademicendeavourwithin themaindisciplinesthemselves.The empirical findingsthathavebeenreportedonanticipationinthefieldof sportpsychologycouldthereforecontributetothegenerationof newknowledgeonthistopicintheparentdisciplinearea,andparticularlyinappliedcognitivepsychology.近年来，在探索专家性能的跨域的性质得到了相当大的兴趣（例如，爱立信，霍夫曼，& feltovich查尼斯， 2006；爱立信&威廉姆斯，2007）。例如，对体育感兴趣的科学家分析了感性认知技能支撑预期在本域和确定这些过程是如何在实践中通过长期参与收购的（评论，见霍奇，huys，& Starkes，2o07：威廉姆斯福特，2008：威廉姆斯福特，2007）。技能习得科学研究实验心理学历史悠久，可以追溯到布莱恩和哈特的早期研究（1899）。在更近的时候，波尔顿（1957）第一次系统区分不同类型的预期判断的实验方法普遍对这门学科之间的影响。期待一场体育中自己的权利探究心理更短的科学史研究，主要出现在上世纪70年代（历史回顾，见威廉姆斯，戴维斯，&威廉姆斯，1999）。在研究传统多种学科范围的学科领域中的大多数运动心理学家的工作，如生理学，心理学，和生物力学，往往在发展主要的学科本身的独立的方面作出学术努力。已经报道了在运动心理学领域的实证研究结果的预期，可能因此有助于母体地区对这一课题的新知识的产生，特别是在应用认知心理学。 Sportoffersarelativelyuniqueenvironmentwherethe limitsofhumanachievementarechallengedcontinually.Thisenvironmentprovidesafertilecontexttoidentifythe essentialskillsandattributesforperformanceaswellas theunderlyingprocessesthatdiscriminateindividualswithvaryinglevelsofperformance.Suchknowledgeprovidesabasis fordeterminingwhattypesofpracticeactivitiesarelikelytoleadtotheacquisitionofskillacrossdomainsand, potentially，whysomeindividualsimproveatdifferentratestoothersorachievemuchhigherperformancelevels(Ericsson.2006).Thisinformationmaysubsequentlybeusedtoevaluatetheapplicabilityofgeneraltheoriesofexpertiseandskillacquisition,todesignappropriateinterventionsforperformanceenhancement,andtoidentifyfactorsthatcontribute to enhancingtheprocessesoftalentsearchandtalent developmentacrossdifferentfieldsofhumanendeavor (EricssonWard. 2007: WilliamsEricsson, 2005, Williams, Ericsson. Ward &Eccles.2008).运动提供了一个相对独特的环境的人类成就极限挑战不断。这个环境提供了一个丰富的上下文识别性能的基本技能和属性以及基本过程，区分个人不同程度的表现。这样的知识提供了用于确定什么类型的实践活动的基础，都有可能潜在的导致技能领域的掌握，为什么有些人提高速度不同于别人或达到较高水平（爱立信，2006）。该信息随后可用于评价一般理论的专业知识和技能的获得，为增强性能，确定适当的干预措施的设计，有助于提高人才招聘和人才在不同领域的人类发展过程的因素（爱立信沃德，2007：威廉姆斯爱立信，2005，威廉姆斯，爱立信。沃德 &埃克尔斯。2008）。Inthisreviewpaper,wesynthesiserecentresearchon perceptual_cognitiveexpertiseinsportandconsiderpotentialimplicationsforthoseworkingwithinthefieldofappliedcognitivepsychology. Wefocusexclusivelyonresearchthat hasattemptedtoidentifytheperceptualandcognitive processesunderpinninganticipation. Theabilitytoanticipate iscrucialtoperformanceinsportaswellas inmanyotherdomainssuchasmilitarycombat,lawenforcement,andeverydaytaskssuchasdrivingacar.Thesesituations requireperformerstodeterminetheintentionsofothersandtoformulateanappropriateresponseoftenundersevere temporalconstraint.Infastballsportssuchastennis,the timetakenfortheballtotravelfromoneopponenttotheotherisoften shorterthanthecombinedsumofanathletesreactiontime andmovementtime,implyingtheneedtoinitiatearesponse aheadoftheopponentactuallystrikingtheball(Williamsetal.,1999).在本文，我们将最近的感性认知运动专长研究和考虑这些应用认知心理学领域内工作的潜在影响。我们专注于研究，试图找出支撑预期的感知和认知过程。预测的能力是体育运动中的关键性能以及在许多其他领域，如军事，执法，和日常任务，如驾驶一辆车。这些都要求演员去了解其他人的意图和制定相应的反应常常是严重的时序约束下。快速球运动如网球，采取球从一个对手，其他的时间通常短于组合和一个运动员的反应时间和运动时间，这意味着需要启动响应的对手其实击球（威廉姆斯等人，1999）。Sincemost sports,andinparticularracketsportsandteamballgames, requireathletestoprocessinformationinatime_constrained environment,itisnecessarryforperformerstoadapttotheuniqueconstraintsofthetaskbyacquiringknowledgestructuresandcognitiveprocessesthatallowthemto anticipate.TheabilitytoanticipateallowsathletesadditionaltimetoformulateandexecuteanappropriateresponseWedocumentattemptstoascertainhowanticipationandtheprocessesunderlyingitareacquiredinsport.Moreover weoutlineeffortstofacilitatetheacquisitionofsuchprocessesusingsimulation_basedtraining.Ouraimistoillustrateusingspecificexampleshowresearchon perceptual-cognitiveexpertiseinsportcanhelpidentifysomeofthegeneralmechanismsandadaptationsthat facilitateanticipationinotherdomains，therebycontributing morebroadlytothefieldofappliedcognitivepsychology.由于大多数的体育运动，特别是球类运动和团队球类运动，要求运动员在时间约束的环境中的信息，它是必要的演员获得的知识结构和认知过程，让他们提前适应任务的唯一约束。预测的能力让运动员更多的时间来制定和执行适当的响应我们文档试图确定如何期待和它背后的过程中获得的运动。此外，我们努力规划使用仿真训练过程进行采集。我们的目的是要说明使用具体的例子，如何在感性认知运动专长研究可以帮助确定一些的一般机制和适应，促进其他领域的预期结果，从而有助于更广泛的应用认知心理学领域。1 The conceptual theory of metaphor and specialized languages （隐喻的概念理论和专业化语言。）FromthepublicationofLakoff and Johnsonsbook Metaphors we live by (1980),thestudyofconceptualmetaphorhasundoubtedlybeenoneofthemajortopicsinthecognitivelinguistics research program Since its inception ,the conceptualtheoryofmetaphorhasprovideduswithhundredsofexampleswhichhavedemonstratedatlengththepowerofacognitiveconstructwhichpervadeseveryaspectof experience.Morerecently,Lakoff(2004)hastakenthevalueof metaphorsasamatterofthoughtandactionastepfurther bydemonstratingtheycanbeusedasatypeofideologicalweaponservingtoframepoliticaloreconomicissues.Thetheoryofconceptualmetaphorhascertainlystirredupthe worldoflinguistics,anditsapplicationshavebeenextendedtonumerousareassuchasdiscourseanalysis,pragmatics,andcontrastiveanalysis. 从莱考夫和约翰逊的隐喻，我们生活的书出版（1980），自成立以来，概念隐喻的研究无疑是一个在认知语言学的研究计划的主要内容，隐喻的概念整合理论为我们提供了具有长度的认知建构，遍及各个方面的经验证明的例子数以百计。最近，Lakoff（2004）采取了隐喻的价值作为一种思想和行动的一步，展示他们可以使用作为一种思想武器为框架的政治或经济问题。概念隐喻理论无疑激起了语言学的世界，其应用已经延伸到许多领域，如话语分析，语用学，对比分析。第六段 Onefieldwherethetheoryofmetaphorhasfeltat easehasbeenthatofEnglishforSpecificPurposes. Specializedlanguageshave,indeed,provenparticularlyfruitful fortheapplicationoftheconceptualtheoryofmetaphor. Evenifourfirstintuitionaboutthejargonofexpertsis thatofaplain,unexcitinglanguage,mostanalyzesof professionaljargonhaverevealedarichlanguagethataboundsinmetaphors.Butspecializedlanguageshavenotonlybeenalluringfor advocatesoftheconceptualtheoryofmetaphorasaprolificsourceofexamples.Theyhavealsohelpedcognitivelinguiststoverifytheirhypothesesbyprovidingthemwithatesting fieldcompletelydifferentfromthatofliterarylanguage.Inthisway,thenumberofstudieswhichhavedemonstratedtheubiquityofmetaphoranditsusefulnessasacognitivetooltounderstandabstractconceptsbywayofmoreconcreteoneshasproliferatedinspecializedfields,suchasthose ofeconomicsandfinance(CharterisBlackMusolff.2003,White. 2003),medicine(TercedorSiuchez,1999.2000),orcomputingand internet (Maglio Matiock, 1998).一个领域的隐喻理论关于英语的特定用途，已经感觉很简单了。专业化的语言，事实上，证明是特别富有成果的概念隐喻理论的应用。即使我们对专家的术语的第一直觉是一个朴实无华的，最乏味的语言，分析了专业术语揭示了一个丰富的语言，丰富的隐喻。但是专业化语言不仅为隐喻概念的理论主张被吸引作为一个多产的例子源。认知语言学家还提供了一个从文学语言完全不同领域的测试来验证他们的假设。在这种方式中，有多项研究表明无处不在的隐喻和它的实用性，在作为一种认知工具来理解抽象概念的更具体的专业领域有所增长。如经济学、金融学（查特里斯黑musolff 2003，白色。2003），医药（tercedor桑切斯，1999.2000），或计算和互联网（马利奥马特洛克，1998）。 In this paper, we focus on conceptual metaphor(概念隐喻) in one of the most influencing specialized fields nowadays,namely, that of financial language. In the age of globalization, business growth and economic fluctuations, financial issues are a burning topic of international interest. But economists are not the only ones under the sway of the financial world. Linguists have also succumbed to the magnetism of language, filled with a unique imagery and flexibility. As a result, in recent years we have witnessed a proliferation of studies on the language of economy and finance. with a special focus on the use of metaphor in economic texts .The aim of the most of the current studies on metaphor from a cognitive linguistics perspective is not to achieve a characterization of the language of finance per se, but rather to profile the underlying contextual and ideological motivations that give rise to its linguistic features. 在本文中，我们专注于概念隐喻的研究，这是当今最具影响力的专业领域之一，即，金融语言。在全球化时代，企业的发展和经济波动，使得金融问题成为国际关注的热门话题。但经济学家们并不是唯一的金融世界的支配者。语言学家也屈服于金融语言的魅力，它充满着一种独特的意象和灵活性。因此，近年来我们见证了对经济和金融语言研究的扩散，并聚焦于经济类的文章中。从认知语言学的角度来看对隐喻的研究目的不在于实现金融本身的语言特征，而是剖析其潜在背景和意识形态动机，挖掘其语言特点。 From this point of view, the comparison of the same conceptual metaphor in different languages proves to be a useful methodology to uncover similarities and differences in the conceptualization of economic and financial issues in different societies. So far, the comparison of English with languages such as French and Dutch ( see Boers & Demecheleer, 1997 ) , German ( see Charteris-Black Musolff, 2003) or Spanish ( see Gomez Parra et al. , 1999; Charteris-Black & Ennis, 2001) has mainly revealed a high similarity between the conceptual metaphors found in the languages under comparison, while differences have been mostly reported in the frequency of use of some specific metaphors. For example Charteris-BlackandEnnis(2001)contrastedacorpusoffinancialreportsinEnglishandSpanishduringtheStockExchangecrisisofOctober1997,andtheyfound thatwhileSpanishfavoursmetaphorsbasedonpsychologicalstates,Englishpreferssailingmetaphors.Theauthorsexplain suchdifferencesintermsoftheinfluenceofreligiononSpanishandofsailingonEnglish.从这一点来看，在不同社会下，比较相同的概念隐喻用不同的语言表达，是发现经济与金融问题相同与异同的有效办法。到目前为止，如法国和荷兰英文语言的比较（见Boers & Demecheleer，1997），德国（见Charteris-Black& Musolff,，2003）和西班牙（见Gomez Parra et a等人。，1999；Charteris-Black & Ennis, 2001）主要表现在比较下发现概念隐喻的语言之间的相似性较高，而差异性则在特定隐喻的研究中做了说明。例如，Charteris-BlackandEnnis对1997年十月英国、西班牙证券交易危机时期的财务报表作了比较，他们发现基于心理状态西班牙倾向于隐喻，而英国倾向于隐喻的自由发展。作者解释这种差异性是就在宗教在西班牙和英国的影响而言的。Thepresentworkisinkeepingwiththiscontrastiveapproach,butdiffersfromthepaperspreviouslymentionedinadoptingacorpuslinguisticsmethodology.Asinsomeoftheliteraturereviewedhere,ouraimistocomparetheconceptual metaphorsfoundinacorpusoffinancialarticlesinEnglishandSpanishinordertodiscoverpossiblesimilaritiesanddifferencesintheconstrualorconceptualizationofthefinancialeventsdescribed.Howeverwealsoattempttodemonstratethatcorpuslinguisticscanbeapowerfultooltoresearchtheconceptualtheoryofmetaphor. 目前的工作是继续采用与对比这方法，但又不同于先前论文中提到的采用语料库语言学一方法。回顾这些文献，我们的目标是比较概念隐喻，发现英国和西班牙的金融文章，为此来发现、解释或概念化的的金融描述事件的异同点。然而我们也尝试证明，对语料库语言学可以是一个强大工具对研究的理论概念的隐喻。2. Corpuslinguisticsandconceptualmetaphor FromtheemergenceoftheCognitiveTheoryofMetaphor,theintrospectiveapproachwastheonetraditionallyappliedtorevealtheconceptualmappingsofagivendomain.Authors,relyingmainlyontheirownintuitionsandknowledgeofthelanguage,routinelylistedaseriesofexpressionstypicalofthedomainunderstudy,andclassifiedthemaccordingtotheconceptualmappingstheyinstantiated.However,themainshortcomingofthismethodwasthatsuchaneclecticcollectionofmetaphoricalexpressionswasstillfarfromrepresentingrealusageandprovidingempiricalvalidationofthepostulatedtheoreticalclaims.Inordertoovercometheselimitations,thispaperfocusesspecificallyoncorpus-basedresearchonconceptualmetaphoricalmappings(cfCharteris-Black,2004;Deignan,2006;StefanowitschGries.2006).Stefanowitsch(2006:2-5)mentionsthreespecificstrategieswhichhavebeenusedtoextractlinguisticexpressionsinstantiatingconceptualmappingsfromnon-annotatedcorpora:(i)searchingmanually for metaphors. usually by reading through the corpus and extracting all the metaphorical expressions one comes across; (ii) searching for metaphorical expressions which contain words from their source domains; (iii) searching far metaphorical expressions which contain words from their target domains . In Stefanowitschs view (2006) , the latter strategy of searching for target domain vocabulary allows researchers to overcome the main shortcomings of the other two, namely,the limitation of the size of the corpus imposed by a manual search, and the need of having the a priori knowledge of the source domains which is required in a search for source domain vocabulary. 从隐喻的认知理论的出现，内省的做法是一个适用于传统的显示给定域的概念映射。作家，主要依靠自己的直觉和语言知识，定期列出了一系列典型的在所研究的领域中表达，并根据他们实例化的概念映射分类它们。但是，这种方法的主要缺点是，隐喻表达这样一个折衷的集合是从代表实际使用情况，并提供了理论上的假设索赔经验的验证还远。为了克服这些局限性，本文特别侧重基于语料库对概念隐喻映射的研究。Stefanowitsch提到的三个具体的策略已被用于提取语言表达的语料库实例概念映射：（）手动搜索隐喻。通常通过读语料和提取所有的隐喻表达; （二）在搜索隐喻的表达，包括词义的来源; （三）搜索包含词源在内的隐喻表达，Stefanowitsch的观点这是一种从他们的目标域的隐喻表达，寻找目标域词汇的策略，使研究人员能够克服其他两个，即大小限制的主要缺点通过手动搜索施加的语料库，并且具有所需要的搜索源域的词汇源域的先验知识的需要。 Stefanowitsch (2006:65) proposes a method which not only helps to remedy these limitations, butalsodealswiththemainmethodologicalproblemcorpuslinguisticsmustfacewhenstudyingmetaphoricalmappings.Whilecorporaareaccessedusingwordforms,metaphoricalmappingsarenoteasilyrelatedtolinguisticformsandare,thus,noteasytoberetrievedautomatically.Todealwiththisdifficulty,Stefanowitsch(2006)putsforwardwhathecallsmetaphoricalpatternanalysis(MPA).Asheacknowledges,theideabehindthemethodissimple:oneormorelexicalitemsareselectedfromthetargetdomainunderstudyandasampleoftheirhitsoroccurrencesareextractedfromthecorpus.Then,themetaphoricalexpressionsthelexicalitemsbelongtoareidentifiedasmetaphoricalpatterns,andgroupsofconceptualmappingsareestablishedonthebasisofthemetaphorstheyinstantiate.Forexample,inourstudy,thetermcrisiswasselectedasaninstanceoflexicalitemfromthetargetdomainunderscrutiny.Asearchforitshitsinthecorpusyieldedthemetaphoricalexpressiontherootsofthecrisis.ThisexpressionwasthenidentifiedasthemetaphoricalpatterntherootsoftheNP.FollowingStefanowitsch(2004:138-139),theidentificationofametaphoricalpatternwas,therefore,basedonthesyntactic/semanticframethe term occurs in. Furthermore. it was also supported by the existence of similar patterns in the source domain. This allowed us to relate the item from the target domain to those items from the source domain that could be expected to occur in the same pattern: e. g. , the roots of the tree/plant. The