新编简明英语语言学上课重点.doc

Linguistics notes 第一周Chapter 1 Introduction .1. Definition of language*Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.l Language is a system.l Language is arbitrary.l Language is vocal.l Language is human-specific.2. Design features of languagel Arbitrariness 任意性l Productivity 多产性l Duality 双重性l Displacement 移位性l Cultural transmission 文化传播性3. Functions of language(Halliday)l The ideational 概念功能 to organize language users experience of the word.l The interpersonal 人际功能 to establish/maintain social relationship.l The textual 语篇功能 to organize texts in a coherent and appropriate way. 第二周1. Definition of linguistics*Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.-general linguistics.Scientific study of language.2. The branches of linguisticsl Phonetics语音学-the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified 研究发音，自然属性，无序的语音l Phonology音系学-the study of how sounds form systems and functions to convey meaning 研究音间联系，注重功能，有序的语音l Morphology形态学、词法-the study of the form off words 涉及词语的内部组织，研究词语的最小单位-语素l Syntax句法学-the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences 研究如何组词成句，形成、理解正确的句子l Semantics语义学-the study of meaning(in abstraction) 研究词语的意义如何在语音中编码l Pragmatics语用学-the study of meaning in context of use 特定情景中的特定话语的理解和运用l Historical linguistics历史语言学-the study of language change.l Sociolinguistics社会语言学-the study of language with reference to societyl Psycholinguistics心理语言学-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.l Applied linguistics应用语言学-the study of applying linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems.广义-实践，狭义-教学研究 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics1) Prescriptive vs. DescriptivePrescriptive规定式-to aims to lay down rules for correct and standard verbal behaviour.做规定Descriptive描写式-to describe and analyze the language people actually use.写现象Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2） Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic共时-the description of a language at some point of time in history.语言在特定时间点上的研究Diachronic历时-the description of a language as it changes through time.语言随时间演变的研究Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic.3) Speech vs. WritingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, written language as secondary.l Linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing; l the amount of information, speech is more than writing; l the learning of mother tongue, speech first,writing later.4) Langue and ParoleTheir distinction was made by the Swiss linguist F. De Saussure.Langue语言-the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.抽象的。规范的语言系统Parole言语- the realization of langue in actual use.特定情景，个人对语言的应用5) Competence and PerformanceTheir distinction was proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky.Competence语言能力-the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.人对语言系统的理解Performance语言应用-the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.人对语言系统的真实应用The difference between Saussures distinction and Chomskys:Saussures distinction- a sociological view of language, a matter of social convention.Chomskys distinction-a psychological point of view, a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-the publication of F. De Saussures book course in general Linguistics.F. De Saussure is called the father of modern linguistics.l Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive;l Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary; traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word;l Modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 第三周Chapter 2 Phonology音系学1. Definition of phonetics语音学Three branches of phonetics:l Articulatory phonetics发音语音学：studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate the sounds.研究语音的产生l Auditory phonetics听觉语音学：studying how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.研究语音的感知l Acoustic phonetics声学语音学：studying how sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.研究语音的物理特征2. Organs of speech l The pharyngeal cavity-the throat;咽腔l The oral cavity-the mouth;口腔l The nasal cavity-the nose.鼻腔3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds标音法1)International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA)国际音标The IPA is using on letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.2) Two ways to transcribe speech sounds:Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription严式标音-有添加附加符号（diacritics)3) Classification of English speech sounds语音分类An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in english into two broad categories:vowels元音&consonants辅音（元音和辅音的区别在于气流是否受阻）In producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever.In the production of a consonants it is obstructed in one way or another.4) Classification of English consonants辅音分类划分标准两种：(判断哪一类是根据什么标准划分）l 一是根据 manner of articulation发音方式：Stops.塞音（爆破音） Fricatives.擦音 Affricates.塞擦音Liquids.流音 Nasals.鼻音 Glides.滑音（半元音）l 二是根据 place of articulation发音部位：Bilabial.双唇音 Labiodental.唇齿音 Dental.齿音 Alveolar.齿龈音 Palatal.腭音 Velar.软腭音 Glottal.喉音5) Classification of English vowels元音分类l The position of the tongue in the mouth;l The openness of the mouth;l The shape of the lips;l The length of the vowels. 第四周1、 Phonology音系学and phonetics语音学l 语音学发音、自然属性、发现规律。l 音系学研究、系统总结、解释规律。2、 Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体l 语音的最小单位是音素。音位/b/,音素b；音位/p/,音素ph/p=l 音位是一个语言中能够区别意义的语音单位。（如：speak和peak)l 音位变体具体体现音位，如音素ph/p=就是音位/p/的变体。3、 phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairl phonemic contrast音位对立：(/b/&/p/)(/g/&/k/)(/t/&/d/)(/s/&/z/)l complementary distribution互补分布：同一个音位的音位变体间的关系，不可能同时出现。（如：speak和peak)l minimal pair最小对立体:音标/音素都相同，仅有一个地方不同，且不同位置相同。（如：till和bill和kill）4、 音系学中的一些规则l Sequential rules序列规则l Assimilation rule同化规则两临近音相互影响（inpossibleimpossible)l Deletion rule省略规则5、suprasegmental featuresstress, tone, intonation超音段、切分特征重音、声调、语调 第六周Chapter 3 Morphology形态学1. Open class 开放类词：名词，动词，形容词，副词。数量不确定，实词。 Closed class 封闭类词：连词，冠词，介词，代词。数量较为固定，虚词。2. Morphology形态学的定义The study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.研究词的内部结构和构词规则。Inflectional Morphology屈折形态学:studying the inflections语法屈折和意义的表达Lexical Morphology词汇形态学：studying the word-formation单词构成和同义的表达3. Morphemes语素The smallest meaningful unit of language, the basic unit in the study of Morphology.Morphemes convey two kinds of meaning: 1. Lexical meaning 词汇意义& 2. Grammatical meaning 语法意义 如：played=play+ed; teaches=teach+es; raining=rain+ing.l Free Morphemes自由语素：有完整的语义，能够单独成词l Bound Morphemes粘着语素：不可单独使用。 l 复合词：组成部分都是自由语素。如：babysit=baby+sitl Root 词根：大都是自由语素，只有极个别是粘着语素。如：-ceive, receive, perceive, conceive. -mit, submit, permit, commit.4. Derivational Morphemes派生语素&inflectional Morphemes屈折语素Derivational morphemes: prefixes前缀 & suffixes 后缀 前缀一般不改变词性，特例：unearth, enlarge, prewar. 后缀一般改变词性。inflectional Morphemes：传递不同的语法关系或语法范畴的粘着语素。如数、时、格等。s/es/ed/ing等. Free morphology: free root root词根自由语素形态学5. Morphology bound root Bound morphology inflectional Morphemes粘着语素 Affix 屈折语素 词缀 Prefixes前缀 Derivational morphemes 派生语素 Suffixes后缀 第七周1. Morphological rules of word formation形态规则派生2. word formation构词法（选择题，判断构词方式）l Derivation/affixation派生法给词干加前缀或后缀l Compounding 复合法两个自由语素，组成的词可单独使用。（*into)形式有连接、隔着横线或空格。一个复合词的词性，一般由第二个词决定。重音一般在第二个成分。l Conversion转类法功能转换，动、形、名。名动 doctor-to doctor water-to water动名 to sneak-a sneak to cheat-a cheatl Blending 拼缀法Motor+hotelmotel smoke+fogsmog 部分加部分造词。l Coinage/ invention 新创造词语商标、厂商名等等 Kodak Coke Nylon Xerox Internet Cyber-spacel Clipping 截断法将长词截短。 Earthquake-quake dormitory-dorm memorandum-memo influenza-flu refrigerator-fridge public house-pub popular music-popl Abbreviation缩略法Acronym首字母缩拼词 UNESCO 联合国教科文组织Initialism首字母缩略词，不能拼写 VOA WTOl Back-formation逆构法删去后缀 editor-edit gangling-gangle hawker-hawk leaser-lasel Borrowing 借词外来词。 第八周Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1.Traditional Grammar 传统学派 数： n. bookbooks v. speakspeaks 性： n. princeprincess heroheroine 格：pron. Ime youyour 一致关系（concord）: abook VS somebooks hespeaks VS theyspeak 支配关系（government）hegive him Ilook at me2.Structuralism 结构主义语言学-结构主义语言学创始人F. de.Saussure每个符号：所指（概念）、能指（读音） 组合关系(syntagmatic): The boy kicked the ball.() The ball kicked the boy.() lexical mistake Boy the ball kicked the.() grammatical mistake 聚合关系(paradigmatic) The _ is smiling. studentteacherfather 处于聚合关系下的词语只须满足语法条件 worker 3. IC analysis 直接成分分析法（immediate constituent)-美国 L. Bloomfield 1933.句子不仅是线性(linear)结构，还是层级(hierarchical)结构。先将句子分析成为直接成分词组或短语，再一直分至最简。Poor John ran away.4. Endocentric constructions 向心结构有核心的结构体，也叫中心结构两类向心结构：1. 主从结构-只有一个中心成分，且该成分处于支配地位名词短语 the three small children动词短语 will have been leaving形容词短语 really very late2. 并列结构-不止一个中心成分 coordinate constructionsBoys and girlsSinging and dancing 第十周1. exocentric construction 离心结构无明显的核心或中心成分的结构体介词短语： on the shelf从句： if he is going英语基本句： the girls smile动宾结构： visit the city2. TG Grammar-Transformational-Generative Grammar转换生成语法N. Chomsky1. Deep structure 深层结构一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表述，即句法关系。2. Surface structure 表层结构深层结构通过一系列的转换规则之后得到的最后结果。3. 普遍语法-Universal Grammar/Linguistic Universal人类所有语言必须具备的原则、条件和规则系统。认为语言研究的目的就是去寻找普遍语法。4. 语言习得机制-LAD, Language Acquisition Device天生的语音学习能力。3. Functional SyntaxV. Mathesius 马泰修斯1.主位-theme已知的信息或至少在给定语境中是明确的，说话者从它开始说话。2.述位-rheme与说话者陈述的有关，或者涉及话语起点的内容。3.主语、谓语 形式分析 对句子进行主位、述位 功能分析Jane stood on it. On it stood Jane.主语 谓语 谓语 主语主位 述位 主位 述位4. 系统功能语法M.A.K. Haliday1. Chomsky 的转换生成语法和 Haliday 的系统功能语法的区别：转换生成语法：a form of knowing心理学；语言是一种知识方式；着重于语言使用者头脑中的知识结构；重视语言的普遍现象。系统功能语法：a form of doing语言和社会间的关系；研究语言和环境的关系；重视对个别语言和个别变体的描写。2. 创新：把语言功能和结构联系起来 概念功能语言功能人际功能 语篇功能Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1. Definition.The study of meaning.2. The naming theory 命名说-Plato语言与现实有直接关系，the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The reference theory 指称论把词语与其所指事物之间的关系视为意义。罗素：意义即指称。局限性：有意义的词不一定有指称。（如：龙、鬼），只适用于物体名词。3. The conceptualist view 概念论语义三角理论： Ogden and RichardsThought/reference/concept Symbolizes refers to Symbol/form/words . Referent/thing/objectA word symbolizes a concept.词是表示概念的。A concept refers to a thing.概念是反映客观事物的。A word stands for a thing.词是代表所指事物的。局限性：符合三角理论无法解释多义词的不同义项之间的关系问题。（operation）不同人对同一个词的概念不同。-so,if,or-4. Contextualism 语境论-J.R.Firth从语言使用的环境来研究语言的意义。5. Behaviorism 行为论-Bloomfield根据行为主义心理学，强调从语言可产生效果，对听者产生的影响，能引起的反应。Meaning as speakers stimulus and hearers response.6. Sense and reference 系统意义和外指意义划分标准：语言内和语言外 meaning=sense+referenceSense :意义的核心，具有根本特征。有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有外指意义。（and, if)同一系统意义可有若干不同的外指意义。(book, desk)同一外指意义可能会有不同的系统意义。（Mrs.Thatcher and the Iron Lady)7. Major sense relationsl Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare.1. Dialectal synonyms-synonyms used in different regional dialects.方言同义词British English and American English 2. Stylistic synonyms-synonyms differing in style语体同义词Home 一般用语residence正式用语 domicile官方正式用语3. Emotive synonyms-differ in their emotive and evaluative meaningCollaborator合作者 accomplice同谋、共犯4. Collocational synonyms- differ in their collocation 搭配同义词Accuse.of charge.with rebuke.for 谴责、指控A flock of sheep.一群羊。A pack of wolves.一群狼。A herd of cows.一群牛。A swarm of bees.一群蜜蜂。A school of whales.一群鲸鱼。5. Semantically different synonyms 词义相异同义词Amaze astound l Leechs classification of meaningLeechs 七分法从语义所起的主次作用划分。1、 概念意义conceptual meaning 以概念为基础，是语言交际的核心。2、 关联意义associative meaning 1. 内涵意义 connotative meaning 附加在概念意义之上的意义。Woman ,tiger 2. 风格意义 stylistic meaning 不同场合使用表现出的不同意义。 Horse马 steed诗歌中的马 nag口语中的马 gee-gee儿童语中的马3. 情感意义 affective meaning 用来表达说话者的感情或态度；词语的褒贬。Politician政客 statesman政治家4. 联想意义 reflected meaning 词语引发读者联想的意义。Intercourse5. 搭配意义 collocation meaning 合适在某一上下文中的意义。A pretty girl ,a handsome boy6. 主题意义 thematic meaning 通过词序和各种强调方式表达出来的意义。Mr. Smith donated the first prize.*The first prize was donated by Mr. Smith.*l Polysemy多义现象 第十二周l Homonymy(同音异义，同形异义，同音同形异义）1） Homophones 同音异义：rain&reign night&knight piece&peace see&sea2） Homographs 同形异义：bow-v.鞠躬，n.弓箭 tear-v.撕，n.眼泪3） Complete homonyms 同音同形异义：fast-adj.快的，v.斋戒 scale-n.规模，v.称重、剥鱼鳞l Hyponymy 上下义关系Co-hyponyms 并列下义词 Superordinate 上义词 Hyponyms 下义词 Flower Superordinate 上义词Hyponyms下义词 Rose Tulip Carnation Lily Morning glory Co-hyponyms 并列下义词 l Antonymy 反义词1） Gradable antonyms 可分等级的反义词中间有过渡 young&old(young-younger-youngest&old-older-oldest) rich&poor2） Complementary 互补反义词非此即彼 male&female dead&alive single&married present&absent3） Relational opposites 关系反义词有一方就有另一方Sell&buy husband&wife father&son doctor&patient above&below8. Sense relations between sentences1） 同义关系 X is synonymous with Y.He was a bachelor all his life. He never married all his life.2） 对立关系 X is inconsistent with Y.John is married. John is a bachelor.3） 蕴涵关系 X entails Y.He has been to France. He has been to Europe.4） 前提关系 X presupposes Y.Johns bike needs repairing. John has a bike.5） 矛盾句 X is a contradiction.My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6） 反常句 X is semantically anomalous.The table has bad intentions.9. Analysis of meaning1) Componential analysis 成分分析-a way to analyze lexical meaningKey words: semantic features语义特征, semantic components语义成分.2) Predication analysis 述谓结构分析-a way to analyze sentence meaningKey words: selectional restrictions 语义选择限制Predication述谓=argument论元+predicate谓词Tom smoke.Tom, somke!Tom is smoking. TOM(SMOKE)Does Tom smoke?Tom has been smoking.空位述谓结构It is late. (BE LATE)一位述谓结构He is smoking. HE(SMOKE)二位述谓结构 The building is next to the library. BUILDING,LIBRARY(BE NEXT TO) 第十三周Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学（语言实用学）1. Some basic notions1) Definition：研究语言使用者如何使用句子，成功进行交际。 2) Pragmatic 语用学VS . Semantics语义学研究语义时，是否考虑语境是语义学和语用学的根本区分点。语用学研究语境，语义学不研究语境。Its cold here. Semantic pragmatics 温度低 关窗户、多穿衣、换地方 3) Sentence meaning 句子意义VS. Utterance meaning话语意义句子意义是抽象的，孤立于语境之外的。话语意义是具体的，和一切交际条件密切相关的，是句子意义与语境的结合。话语意义比句子的语义丰富很多。2. Speech at theoryl Speech at theory 言语行为理论解释言语交际的本质-John Austin1） constatives述事话语 & performatives行事话语前者可验证，后者无法验证，后者用来实施某一种行为。如：I do.结婚仪式用语2） 言语三种行为：Locutionary act:言内行为-以言指事，说出这件事，体现字面意义。Illocutionary act:言外行为-以言行事，用说话做事，体现说话意图。 Perlocutionary act:言后行为-以言成事，说话带来的后果，即说话意图是否被实习，如实现，即交际成功；如不实现，即交际失败。 第十四周l Classification of speech acts言语行为分类John SearleShare the same illocutionary point 言外之的（某一类言语行为共同具有的目的）, but differ in