英语写作复习提纲.doc

Academic writing for PhD students1. introduction 考试格式：先给一个文本，写出move1、move2、move3的句号，然后再写一下各个句子的作用，如move1-a等， 见P61例如：XXXXXXXXMove 1: a:1、2、3； b: 4、5Move 2:a:6、7Move 3: a:8、9Function: move 1-a :by showing that the general research area is important. move 1-b: 复习资料：Writing introduction section:Move 1 establishing a research territory 确立研究范围 A: by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional 可选，即可有可无) B: by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area. (obligatory, 必选)：文献综述。Move 2: establishing a niche：说明该研究的必要性 A: by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. (obligatory, 必选)Move 3: occupy the niche A: by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research.（必选）:has two main variants:l Purposive(P): the author or authors indicate their main purpose or purposes.l Descriptive(D): the author or authors describe the main feature of their research.l Other elements: secondary aims of features; the contribution and value of your research; principle finding（原则，主义等发现）; an outline of the structure of your paper. B: by announcing principal finding（可选） C: by indicating the structure of the RP（可选）2、改错题（见书P14、15、16、17等处） effective sentence structure: P14-16Unity：一致、同一，例如先后语句的主语、时态等的统一Coherence：条理性、连贯性Conciseness：简明扼要，即不要过于啰嗦Emphasis：强调，重点Variety：变化, variety is the foundation of sentence style. Apart from variety in sentence length, other variations are variety in sentence beginning, in grammatical structure (simple, complex, compound-complex ), in rhetorical（修辞学）structure (loose松散的，periodic周期性, balanced平衡的), in the elements (words, phrases, clauses从句), and in sentence rhythms（节奏，韵律）. correct use of numbers（数字的正确使用）: P17-19 普通规则 如果数据放在句首，一定要用单词，不能用数字：注意如果数字不能用少于四个单词表示，则不应放在句首（最重要的规则，必须遵守） 在写作中，非特殊数据应根据以下两个规则写为单词：l 数据小于100时，则写为单词l 数据如果能用一或二个单词表示，则写为单词 当数据出现在时间单位前，则应根据上面的规则来确定使用数字或单词：注意在技术写作中，不同过程的时间应用精确的数字来表示。 如果句子中罗列了许多数据，则应如下：l 如果数据个数不多，且所有数据仅包括一或两个数字，则数据可以用数字或单词来表示l 如果罗列的数据包括三或更多的数字，则应使用数字 当一个数据紧接着另一个数据，则第一个数据用单词表示，而第二个数据用数字表示，例: five 16foot boards 当数据用来表示精确的计量、距离、尺寸、容量、重量、钱数和比例时，用数字来表示数据，例如：7 feet 近似数据应用单词表示，在表示的时候应取整数表示：注意：在技术写作中，所有电学数据都应用数字来表示，例如: nearly two hundred, 又如1500 ohms（电学） 除了特定原因外，四位数据不用逗号，而五位或更多位的数据，则应从右边起每三个数字用逗号分开，例如：5000，又如12，000 当数据小于1时，则应在小数前放置0，例如：0.008，注意如果数据用列来表示，则小数点应对其，例如：0.7530.00050.925 当表示日期时，通常使用数字，数字通常紧随月份，例如：july 5，1981 在地址中，房号用数字表示；如果街区名字中有小于100的数据，则用数字表示，而数据大于100时，则使用单词表示，例如：3293 South Twelfth East更正：在地址中，房号用数字表示；如果街区名字中有小于100的数据，则街道名用单词表示，而数据大于100时，则使用数字表示，例如：3293 South Twelfth East 在技术写作中，时间用数字表示，其后通常紧跟a.m., p.m., A.M., P.M.。通常使用小写形式，例如： 7a.m.。若所列的小时都包括分钟，则用0，否则不用，例如：8 a.m. 又如 8：00a.m. 数字通常用来表示图表名。在表示页数时，page的首字母不用大写，而其他的则需要大写，例如：page 1, Chapter 5, Figure 1 世纪的名称通常用单词表示，且首字母不用大写，例如：the twentieth century 岁数用数字表示，例如：8 years old 仅在法律文件中同时使用数字和单词，但在技术写作中不这样用。当作者选择这种形式，则不需要重复，例如：500 watts，不应写成 five hundred (500) watts rules for fractions（分数的规则） 所有的分数都用单词表示，例如：two thirds更正：所有的用来表示整体或近似的分数都用单词表示，例如：two thirds 用于特定数据形式的分数应用数字表示，例如：inch(或者 of an inch) 当分数作为复合形容词的一部分，则必须使用连字符将分数与紧随的形容词（书上的原文，但是我觉得有问题，应该是紧随的量词）连在一起，例如：inch 在复合数（又有整数又有分数，例如假分数）中，应在整数和分数之间使用连字符或者空格，例如：1 inches 当复合数作为复合形容词一部分时，整数与分数之间使用空格，而在复合数和紧随的形容词之间使用连字符，例如：1 inch pipe 整篇文章的分数格式必须一致，要么都使用连字符，要么都使用空格。注：不知道P20的大写是否要考 3、paraphrasing（意译）：见书P25-26 要注意paraphrasing应与原文长度相等。意译、概括和评论是写论文时的必须部分。当我们引用他人的看法时，我们需要意译和/或总结，并表明出处。进行意译的方式如下： 使用同义词 改变单词形式 使用不同的过渡词，并进行必要的结构调整 在主动语态和被动语态之间进行转换 在肯定词和否定词之间进行转换 如果有可能，以作者和标题结尾 不要改变专业术语 提及原文献4、definition ：见书P47-48、49，通常是给几个名词选一个写definition在正式的定义中，首先应说出该事物所属的种类，然后再将其与本种类中其他事物区别。 the grammar of definitions定义的语法：P47 使用正确的冠词 进行必要的删减 使用适当的介词 five guidelines for writing a definition写定义的五个指导：P48 使用精确的词语来表示类别，例如：错：a microscope is an object, 对：a microscope is an instrument 要求更正式，例如：错：a solar cell is something that, 对： a solar cell is a device that 避免使用要定义词语的不同形式来解释该词语，例如：错：erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth erodes 在定义中避免使用when 和where，例如：错：pollution is when 一些专业词汇有不同的含义，因此在写定义时，应先定性说明目的，例如：例：A cylinder as used in this report is a chamber in which force is exerted on the piston of a reciprocating engine. extended definitions扩展定义：P49-50 分析成分，例见P49 举例，例见P50 说明发展历程，例见P50 说明应用范围，例见P50 说明普通定义存在的问题或例外，例见P50 预测未来，例见P50 contrastive definition通过对比下定义：P51-53，格式如下：如：the former deals with _ , while the latter is concerned with _ comparative definition通过比较下定义，两种方法如下所列，好的比较定义通常包括这两个方法，见书P53： 说明该定义历史上的变更 概述现代其他专家对于该定义的看法。5、作文（不多于200字，要求用PS结构的文章）：见书P55，最好写四小段。PS（问题解答）结构的文章通常包括4个部分： description of a situation描述相关情况：见书P55 identification of a problem辨别问题 description of a solution描述解决方法 evaluation of the solution评估解决方法注意：有可能考书上P57的practice 23中的五个词语（如下所列），尤其前三个： Private cars High education Population explosion Environmental pollution One related to your own field of study一、 Introduction分析文本，写出每一步有哪些句子，具体功能。Move 1 a. Show the general research area is important/central/interesting/problematic/relevant in some way. 【一些标志性词、句】 Recently, there has been growing interest in The possibility of has generated wide interest in The development of is a classic problem in The development of has led to the hope that The has become a favorite topic for analysis Knowledge of has a great importance for The study of has become an important aspect of A central issue in is The has been extensively studied in recent years. Many investigators have recently turned to The relationship between has been investigated by many researchers. Many recent studies have focused on b. Introduce and reviewing items of previous research in the area. 【引述、时态】 一般过去时一般有具体施动者（一般指某一项单独研究） 现在完成时没有具体施动者（一般指某个领域） 一般现在时不是某位研究者的某项具体研究（当前某个知识的说明）Move 2 (however，nevertheless提出问题)Indicate a gap in the previous research.Raise a question about it. (Raise a question, a hypothesis, or a need.)Extend previous knowledge in some way.(Continue a line of research.)Move 3a. Outline purposes or state the nature of the present research. 【一些标志句子】 (Purposive)The aim of the present paper is to give The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to This study was designed to evaluate It is the purpose of the present paper to provide (Descriptive)This paper reports on the results obtained In this paper we give preliminary results for The present work extends the use of the last model by We now report the interaction between The primary focus of this paper is on .b. Announce principal findings.c. Indicate the structure of the RP.二、 ParaphraseTo paraphrase means to completely reproduce the original meaning in our own words (but never include our own opinion).【Outlines】 Use synonyms.（用同义词） Change word forms. （改变单词形式） Use different transitional words and make the necessary structure adjustment. Change between Active Voice and Passive Voice. (主动、被动语态转换) Change between the Affirmative and the Negative. (肯定句、否定句转换) Be complete with author and title if possible. Do not change technical terms. Include reference to the original source.三、 Definition1、sentence definitionA formal definition is written as one or two complete sentences and consists of three parts:(1) the word to be defined(2) a general class to which the word belongs(3) the characteristics of the word being defined that distinguish that word from other members of the general classA(n) term is (a/an) class wh-word/that specific detail .【注意】（1） 正确使用冠词（2） 做必要的删减（3） 正确使用介词【outlines】(1) find the prcise word or phrase for the class(2) be more formal(3) avoid using any form of your term in your definition(4) avoid using when and where in definitions(5) some technical terms have more than one meaning, a qualifying statement is included in a definition written for one specific purpose2、extended definitionsAn extended definition usually begins with a general, one-sentence definition and then becomes more specific as additional details are provided.【结构】（1） an analysis of components（2） examples（3） a sense of historical change and development（4） a knowledge of applications（5） an awareness of problems with or exceptions to the general definition（6） future predictions【Contrastive Definitions】 To display your knowledge about two or more related terms.【Comparative Definitions】 To display your knowledge of the complexities surrounding key terms in your field of study. Two approaches of this type of task: (1) to present a historical account of how a concept has changed over time, (2) to present an overview of how various experts today view a concept differently.四、 PS text (Problem-solution text)(1) Description of a situation(2) Identification of a problem(3) Description of a solution(4) Evaluation of the solution五、 Erect errors南 京 航 空 航 天 大 学研究生考试试卷200 7 2008学年 第二 学期 博士生学术英语写作 课程考试日期: 2009 年01 月 05 日 课程编号：命题教师: 施鸣鸣 陈彩莉Part IDirections: Identify the three moves in the following Introduction Sections and decide the general function of each move. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (20 points) Introduction 1The liquid sloshing in fuel containers of spacecraft has been given increasing attention with the development of liquid-filled spacecraft. At present, the linear equivalent mechanical model is commonly used to deal with the liquid sloshing in engineering practice. The model parameters, frequencies and damping of the sloshing with small amplitude have to be identified1. Theoretical analysis of damping in liquid sloshing with small amplitude can be traced back to Stokes2 who calculated the flow over an oscillating plane and remarked that the flow over an oscillating curved boundary may be approximated with a relatively good accuracy by regarding each element of the boundary as an infinite plane oscillating with the same velocity. But there is a great difference between the theoretical results and measured values. It was pointed out in Ref. 3 that the damping of liquid sloshing is usually caused by: (i) viscous dissipation at a rigid boundary of the container, (ii) viscous dissipation at the free surface, which may be covered by a viscoelastic film, (iii) viscous damping in the interior fluid，and (iv) capillary hysteresis at a contact line. Miles and Henderson3,4, and Martel et a1.5 did a series of analyses on the sloshing damping in a full cylinder container and proposed to compute the rigid boundary damping based on Stokes theory and the inner damping based on Lambs dissipation and take their sum as the total damping. Hexi Baoin6 presented an eigenvalue equation for computing the sloshing damping in the interior fluid and the frequencies. According to these studies it can be said that the liquid sloshing damping is very complicated and in most cases it is impossible to get the exact value. Therefore, to estimate the range may be a better way for engineering practice. In the present paper, a damping estimation scheme based on FEM is proposed.Introduction 21Aircraft seats are an airlines product. 2Similar to any other product, a larger quantity secures sales, while extra inventory incurs costs.3For airlines, providing larger capacities implies higher operating costs. 4On the other hand, aircraft seats are perishable, that is, unsold seats at the departure of the flight are wasted. 5Consequently, the ideal strategy is to provide just the right number of seats to passengers at the right price. 6The first of these two ideals is addressed by the fleet assignment process, which is the subject of the present paper, while the second falls in the purview of yield or revenue management. 7The fleet assignment problem (FAP) deals with assigning aircraft types, each having a different capacity, to the scheduled flights, based on equipment capabilities and availabilities, operational costs, and potential revenues. 8An airlines fleeting decision highly impacts their revenues: Assigning a smaller aircraft than needed on a flight will result in spilled (i.e., lost) customers due to insufficient capacity; assigning a larger aircraft will result in spoiled (i.e., unsold) seats, and presumably higher operational costs. 9Thus, FAP constitutes an essential component of an airlines overall scheduling process. 10However, due to the large number of flights scheduled each day, which can easily reach thousands for a major airline, and the dependency of the FAP on other airline processes such as schedule design, crew scheduling, aircraft routing, maintenance planning, and revenue management, solving the FAP has always been a challenging task for the airlines. 11As a result, it is not surprising that the FAP has been extensively studied in the Operations Research literature. 12However, most of the traditional approaches proposed for the FAP depend on solving the FAP in isolation from the other airline scheduling processes and under restrictive assumptions such as considering the same-every-day schedule; and using point forecasts for flight-based demands instead of itinerary-based or path-based demands.13Furthermore, customers rejected from their requested itineraries (due to capacity restrictions) are often assumed to be lost. 14In reality, they may choose to take another route that is comparable to their first choice itinerary in terms of the origin, destination, and time-frame (i.e., they may be recaptured).15The recapture effect has mostly been ignored in analytical studies until very recently.16Recent advances in information technology, coupled with an increasingly competitive marketplace, have motivated researchers to consider new approaches for the FAP over the last decade. 17These new directions include: (1) integrating the FAP with other airline decision processes such as schedule design, aircraft maintenance routing, and crew scheduling; (2) proposing solution techniques that include additional considerations into the traditional fleeting models, such as considering itinerary-based demand forecasts and the recapture effect, as well as investigating the effectiveness of alternative approaches such as randomized search procedures; and (3) studying dynamic fleeting mechanisms that update the initial fleeting solution as departures approach and more information on demand patterns is gathered, thus providing a more effective way to match the airlines supply with demand.18The aim of this paper is to present a tutorial on the basic and enhanced models and approaches that have been developed for the FAP as well as to suggest some future research directions in this arena.19For the sake of exposition, we focus on several key recent papers on the FAP, instead of providing an exhaustive survey in this area, for which we refer the interested readers to the review articles by Gopalan and Talluri (1998), Yu and Yang (1998), Barnhart et al. (2004), Clarke and Smith (2004), and Klabjan (in press). 20A special issue of Transportation Science (Ball, 2004) also provides a variety of topics on aviation operations research.21The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: We first introduce the terminology that will be used throughout this paper in Section 2. 22We then proceed to describe the various fleet assignment models (FAM) in the subsequent sections. 23Specifically, the basic FAM as well as the proposed solution approaches are discussed in Section 3. 24Section 4 presents various approaches that aim at integrating the FAM with other airline decision processes. 25Section 5 addresses enhanced FAMs that include certain additional considerations, and Section 6 covers some dynamic fleeting models. 26Finally, Section 7 concludes this paper with some recommendations for future research directions in this area.Part II A. Directions: Correct or improve the following sentences. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (15 points, 3 points each)1. A well-dressed man admitted us to the house, and we later learned that he was a thief.2. Chemical literature is doubling every eight years in volume. Every ten to twelve years there is twice as much biomedical material published.3. Glancing out of the window, a beautiful view attracted my attention.4. In order to pick out fish bones