简述三权分立在美国的确立.doc

简述三权分立在美国的确立摘要：三权分立是美国的一项重要制度。三权分为立法、行政、司法三部分，这三权各司其职，相对独立，但又保持制衡。三权分立经过亚里士多德、洛克、孟德斯鸠等人的发展，已经初具雏形。美国1787年联邦宪法在三权分立思想的影响下，对其进一步发展，设定了三权分立的宪法模式，成为美国政治生活的一大特色。关键词：三权分立；分权；制衡三权分立的思想最早应追溯到亚里士多德。他认为国家的职能分为议事、行政和审判三个方面，这就是他的“政体三要素”论，为分权理论奠定了思想基础。古希腊的波里比阿在亚里士多德思想的基础上，进一步指出国家的这三种权力在分工的基础上又互相牵制，以维护政体的平衡。权力制衡的思想开始出现。17世纪，英国人洛克则创立了资产阶级分权思想的先河。他认为，政治权力应分为立法、执行和外交三个方面。 对美国三权分立体制的产生有直接深远影响的应是孟德斯鸠。他在论法的精神中详细系统地阐释了三权分立思想。这个思想取得了反对封建专制政权的胜利。孟德斯鸠认为：“从事物的性质来说，要防止滥用权力，就必须以权力约束权力”。他把国家权力三分化：立法权是制定、修改或废止法律的权力，这项权力应体现公意，应由全体人民来行使；行政权是用以媾和或宣战，派遣或接受使节，维护公共安全，防御侵略，应当由国王行使；司法权是惩罚犯罪、解决私人争诉的权力，由法院行使。同时，他进一步指出了分权的必要性：“当立法权力、行政权力集中在同一个人或同一个机关之手，自由便不复存在了；如果司法权力不同立法权力行政权力分立，自由也就不复存在了。如果司法权力同立法权力合二为一，则将公民的生命和自由施行专断的权力，因为法官就是立法者。如果司法权同行政权合二为一，法官便将握有压迫者的权力。如果同一个人或者由重要人物，贵族或平民组成的同一个机关行使这三种权力，即制定权，执行公共决策权和裁判私人犯罪或争讼权，则一切都完了。” 1 美国是最早将三权分立宪法化的国家。随后，三权分立制度成为美国政治制度的一项重要内容。为何这项制度能够步入美国的政治生活？究其原因，一是孟德斯鸠的三权分立思想的影响，可以说是其思想渊源；二是在美国还处于英属殖民地时期，英国人的专制统治，给美国人带来了无尽灾难，从而美国人对权力的专制，尤其是行政专制产生了畏惧感。当美国人掌握了自己命运的时候，他们迫切地要把国家权力进行分化，三权分立就成了最好的选择。另外一个原因，也是最容易被大家忽视的一点：在联邦建立之前，对美国社会起承上启下的邦联时期，各州政府的立法专制是推动联邦宪法实行分权体制的直接原因。组成邦联的各州遵循孟德斯鸠的三权分立思想进行了分权，但基于对行政专制的恐惧，把政府的主要权力赋予立法机关，使得立法、行政、司法机关的权力配置极其不平衡。而且缺失了相互制约，造成了立法机关权力滥用、无所顾忌。人们认识到权力集中到立法机关依然会带来专制和权力滥用。2国会掌握立法权，制定法律。国会由选民直接选举产生，只对选民负责，不受行政机关的干预。为了保障国会能够独立的行使权力，不受总统的干预，宪法还设定了保障机制：总统无权解散国会，不能决定议员的工资待遇。在国会内部又进一步对权力进行了分配，国会由参议院和众议院组成。国会的权力体现在：制定法律权、修改宪法权、对总统、副总统的复选权及弹劾权等。行政权由总统行使。总统由选民选举产生，只对选民负责，不对国会负责。国会不得增减总统的报酬，非经审判定罪不得罢免总统。总统的主要权力体现在：统领陆海军，对外缔结条约，宣布缓刑和特赦，任命大使、公使、领事、最高法院的法官等官员，签署或拒绝签署国会通过的法案。最后一项权力是司法权。司法权由联邦最高法院以及国会随时下令设立的低级法院来行使，最高法院有终审权。联邦法院的法官均由总统征得参议院同意后进行任命，法官只要忠于职守，可以终身任职，非经国会弹劾不能被免职。宪法对司法权适用的范围进行了界定：应包括在本宪法、合众国法律和合众国已订的及将订的条约之下发生的一切涉及普通法及衡平法的案件；一切有关大使、公使及领事的案件；一切有关海上裁判权及海事裁判的案件。另外，作为联邦最高法院还拥有一项重要权力司法监督权。虽然在美国宪法中没有明确规定，但已经发挥了重要作用。为了保障三个权力行使的独立性，美国宪法还规定，这三个机关的官员在任职上应保持彼此的独立:任何一个机关的官员不得在任职期间担任另一机关的职务。 在对权力进行分工的基础上，美国宪法的一个重要特点，就是运用了孟德斯鸠的“权力制约权力”理论，规定了三权之间的相互制衡，这种制衡强调相互性，而不是一种单向制约。 立法权与行政权的制衡。根据美国宪法的规定：众议院享有对包括总统在内的政府高级官员的弹劾权；对于总统提名的大使、公使及领事、最高法院的法官等拥有批准权；总统对外缔结条约，须征得参议院的同意；总统应经常向国会报告联邦的情况及有关措施。众议院对总统的弹劾权在一定程度上确实对总统有制约和监督作用。在美国历史上第一位被弹劾的总统是是第届总统安德鲁约翰逊，被弹劾的理由是南北战争后在重建问题上产生争执，因此遭到众议院的弹劾、参议院的审判。最后因一票之差逃脱虎口，没有被定罪和免职。再就是轰动一时的1974年的“水门事件”，众议院已经准备了充足的理由要弹劾总统尼克松，迫于压力，在众议院对弹劾案表决前，尼克松提出辞职。另外，人们依然记忆犹新的20世纪末对总统克林顿的弹劾，又是一个国会对总统制约的鲜活例证。除此之外，让美国总统挠头的是参议院通过对总统对外缔结的条约行使否决权，而对总统权力的行使进行制约。自从美国建国后，一共有十几个条约被拒绝批准，其中最著名的是第一次世界大战结束时签订的凡尔赛和约。威尔逊总统曾亲自参加这项条约的谈判。参议院对凡尔赛和约的否决，使美国不能成为国际联盟的成员国，这说明立法机关对行政机关的制约在重大事件上具有不可思议的重大而深远的意义。3作为美国总统，宪法同样赋予其制约国会的权力。总统拥有对国会通过的法案的否决权。对于国会送交的法案，如果在10天之内总统不进行签署的话，而这时候如果国会休会，那么就意味着这项议案失效了。最初的几位总统很少行使这种否决权。到了杰克逊总统的时候，总统对国会议案享有的否决权被充分利用。在美国两百多年的历史上，历任总统共行使了2500余次否决权。其中被称为“法案杀手”的罗斯福总统，其前后行使了635次。通过这种途径，总统可以否决掉与自己意见相悖的法案，达到对立法机关的制约。 司法权与立法权、行政权的制衡。美国宪法把司法权赋予法院。美国的法院包括联邦法院和州法院。根据亚里士多德最初的三权分立思想，司法权尤其是要独立于立法权和行政权的，这也是司法独立和法治原则的基本要求。美国宪法为了保障法官能独立行使职权，规定法官只要能尽忠职守，应终身任职。另外在薪金方面，为了解除法官的后顾之忧，规定要高于政府官员，而且不得任意减少，即“按期接受俸给作为其服务之报酬，在其继续任职期间，该项俸给不得削减”。同时，宪法还规定：在法官任职期间，不得担任政治组织的工作，不能参加竞选公职活动等。最高法院的大法官由总统提名和任命，由参议院批准。这是美国宪法设定的立法权、行政权对司法权的制约。除此之外，国会和各州如果不认可最高法院的裁决，可以联合以宪法修正案的形式将其推翻，也可以重新通过被法院判定为违宪的法律。反观之，司法权对立法权、行政权的制约体现在最高法院对总统和国会的司法审查权上。这项权力虽然没有在1787年美国宪法及其后1789年司法条例中明确规定，但已经在实际中发挥了作用。至今，美国最高法院已经判处100多项国会所制定的法律违背宪法。 参考文献1法孟德斯鸠论法的精神M 张雁泽译商务印书馆1987年版。2张定河美国分权体制的确立及其演变J 文史哲，2000年第1期。3赵德平试论美国宪法中的“三权分立”原则J 宝鸡文理学院学报（哲社版），1995年第4 期。Brief separation of powers established in the United StatesAbstract: The separation of powers is an important system in the United States. The three powers into legislative, executive and judicial part of these three powers carry out their duties, relatively independent, but maintain the checks and balances. Separation of powers, Aristotle, Locke, Montesquieu, and other human development, has begun to take shape. 1787 United States Federal Constitution under the influence of the separation of powers thinking, its further development, set the constitutional model of separation of powers has become a major feature of American political life.Key words: separation of powers; decentralization; checks and balancesThe idea of separation of powers was first traced back to Aristotle. He believes that the functions of the state is divided into three aspects of the rules of procedure, administrative and judicial, and this is his regime elements theory, laid the ideological foundation for the separation of powers theory. Polybius on the ideas of Aristotle in ancient Greece, and further pointed out that the three powers of the countries on the basis of the division of labor and mutual restraint, in order to maintain the balance of the regime. The idea of the balance of power began to appear. 17th century, the Englishman John Locke created the bourgeois separation of powers thinking first of its kind. He believes that political power should be divided into three aspects of the legislative, executive and diplomatic.With direct far-reaching impact of Montesquieu on the American political system. He Spirit of the Law of the separation of powers thinking. This idea has made the victory against the feudal autocratic regime. Montesquieu said: From the nature of things, to prevent the abuse of power, it is necessary to power the power to bind. He state power differentiation: the legislative power to enact, amend or repeal the power of the law, this power should reflect the public will, of all people should be exercised; executive power to make peace or declare war, to send or receive envoys to maintain public security, defense and aggression, shall be exercised by the King; judicial power is to punish crime, to address the powers of private dispute complaint by the courts. He further pointed out the need for separation of powers: legislative power, executive power is concentrated in the hands of the same person or the same organ, freedom would cease to exist; if the judicial power of the legislative powers of the executive separation of powers, freedom also gone. If the judicial power is combined with the legislative powers, is the life and liberty of the citizens of the purposes of arbitrary power, because the judge is legislators if the judicial power, peers into one regime, the judge put the hold of oppression of those powers if the same person or an organ of an important figure, nobles, or civilians to exercise these three powers, namely to develop the right implementation of public decision-making and the referee private crime or contentious the right, then everything is finished. 1The United States is the early separation of powers, the Constitution of the State. Subsequently, the separation of powers system has become an important part of the American political system. Why this system will be able to enter political life in the United States? First, the thinking of Montesquieus separation of powers, can be said that their ideological origins in reason; in the United States is still in the British colonial period, the authoritarian rule of the British, the Americans brought untold disaster , which the Americans the power of autocratic, especially administrative despotism produced a sense of fear. Americans are masters of their own destiny when they desperately want to state power division, the separation of powers became the best choice. Another reason, but also most likely to be ignored: prior to the establishment of the Federation, the Confederation of American society from the nexus, states the Governments legislative despotism is to promote the Federal Constitution to implement the direct cause of the separation of powers system. Form a confederation of states to follow Montesquieus separation of powers idea of separation of powers, based on the fear of administrative despotism, the major powers of the Government gives the legislature, legislative, executive and judiciary power configuration is extremely unbalanced. And lack of mutual restraint, resulting in the abuse of the powers of the legislature, the cynical. People realize that the concentration of power to the legislature will still bring tyranny and abuse of power. 2Congress grasp the legislative power to enact laws. Parliament directly elected by voters, the voters, free from executive interference. Able to independently exercise their powers in order to protect the Congress, without the intervention of the president, the Constitution also sets the protection mechanism: The President has no right to dissolve the parliament can not decide on the salaries of Members. Further the powers of Congress internal allocation of Congress by the Senate and House of Representatives. The power of Congress reflected in the: development of legal rights, the right to amend the Constitution, the right to check on the president and vice president and impeachment. The executive power is exercised by the President. The President is elected by voters, only to voters, not Parliament. Congress shall make no changes in the remuneration of the President, the non-trial conviction may not recall the president. The presidents power is reflected in: command of the army and navy, foreign conclude treaties, announced reprieves and pardons, to appoint ambassadors, ministers, consuls, judges of the Supreme Courts official, signed or refused to sign the bill passed by Congress. Finally a power is judicial power. Lower courts to exercise jurisdiction at any time by the Federal Supreme Court and Congress ordered the establishment of the Supreme Court has the power of final adjudication. Federal court judges appointed by the President of the consent of the Senate agree, the judge, as long as devoted to their duties, tenure, non-impeachment can not be removed from office. Defining the scope of application of the constitutional jurisdiction: should include all cases involving common law and equity under the treaty of this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and America has been set and will set; all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls cases; all cases of maritime jurisdiction and admiralty jurisdiction . In addition, as the Federal Supreme Court also has an important power - the right to judicial supervision. Although not clearly defined in the Constitution of the United States, but has played an important role. In order to protect the independence of the three powers are exercised, the United States Constitution also stipulates that these three organs of the officials in office should keep each others independence: officials of any authority shall not during his tenure as the duties of the other organs.An important feature of the Constitution of the United States, on the basis of division of power, the use of the power constraints of power theory of Montesquieu, the provisions of the checks and balances between the three powers, such checks and balances emphasis on mutuality, rather than a one-way constraints.Checks and balances of the legislative and executive power. Enjoy the right of senior government officials including the presidents impeachment in accordance with the provisions of the United States Constitution: the House of Representatives; the president for the presidential nomination of ambassadors, ministers and consuls, the Supreme Court judges have the right of approval; conclusion of a treaty, the requirement of the Senate consent; He shall report to Congress on Federal and related measures. House of Representatives on the impeachment of the President to a certain extent does the President of the restraint and supervision. The first one in American history to be impeached President Andrew Johnson, 17th president to be impeached grounds that reconstruction after the Civil War dispute, and therefore be subject to the impeachment of the House of Representatives, the Senate trial. Finally, by one vote, to escape the jaws of death, have not been convicted and removed from office. Then there are the sensational 1974 Watergate, the House of Representatives has prepared a sufficient reason to impeach President Nixon, under pressure, before the House of Representatives on the impeachment vote, Nixon to resign. In addition, people still remember the late 20th century, the impeachment of President Bill Clinton, but also a vivid illustration of a congressional constraints on the president. In addition, scratching their heads by the President of the United States Senate veto by the president to conclude a treaty to restrict the exercise of presidential power. Since after the founding of the United States, a total of more than a dozen treaties were refused, the most famous of which is signed by the end of World War I Treaty of Versailles. President Wilson had personally participated in the negotiation of this treaty. The Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles , the United States can not become members of the League of Nations, this incredibly significant and far-reaching significance of the legislature to the executive constraints on the major events. 3 as President of the United States, the Constitution also gives its power to constrain Congress. The President has the veto of the bill passed by Congress. If within 10 days of the bill Congress sent President is not signed, then, when Congress adjourned, then it means the motion fails. The first of several presidential rarely exercise this veto. President Jackson, the veto power enjoyed by the President of Congress motion is fully utilized. Two hundred years of American history, presidents have exercised more than 2,500 times a veto. President Roosevelt, which was known as bill killer before and after exercise 635 times. In this way, the President can veto the bill runs counter to their views, to constraints on the legislature.Checks and balances of the judicial power and legislative power, executive power. The U.S. Constitution to give the court jurisdiction. U.S. courts, including federal and state courts. Jurisdiction, according to Aristotle, the initial separation of powers thinking especially independent of the legislative and executive powers, which is also the independence of the judiciary and the rule of law, principles of basic requirements. Constitution of the United States can independently exercise their functions and powers in order to protect judges, provides that judges should be appointed for life as long as can be dedicated. Salary, in order to relieve the worries of the judges, to require higher than government officials, and on