Style.doc

Style：In plain language, style is different ways of expressing the same or different things by different people for different purposes in different times.Style is “the manner of expression in writing or speaking which changes at all times according to the actual situational elements, e.g., the participants, time, place, topic, etc. of the communicative events, from very formal to very informal.”Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies style in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners/ linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.REGISTERs, are language varieties that are associated with the different use to which they are put. (Such varieties do not depend so much on the people who use the language, but on the occasion when it is used. Different types of language are selected as appropriate to different types of occasion. The occasions can be classified along three dimensions, namely the field, tenor and mode of discourse.) Registers are distinctive language varieties used in different types of situation which is jointly determined by the three contextual categories field, mode and tenor. Field refers to the social activities in which language plays a part, e.g. a teacher lecturing to students, a lawyer advising a client,etc.Mode of discourse/medium refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or speech sounds (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to another. Tenor of discourse refers to the personal relationships between addresser and addresseecalled PERSONAL TENOR, and what the addresser is trying to do with language for/ to his/her addressee(s) called FUNCTIONAL TENOR.Texts can be seen as a configuration(整体，集合） of the three contextual features and can be analyzed in terms of field, mode and tenor of discourse.In stylistics, phonology is the study of the distinctive sound units and patterns they fall into.Elision: omission of a sound or sounds in speech or in poems in order to achieve certain effects or maintain the entirety of meter.Sound patterning It refers to the matching of identical or similar sound(s) between two or more words. This can be achieved with repetition of phonemes or/and syllables.metrical pattern : the repetition of the same kind of foot in one line, e.g. all the feet are iambic or trochaic in a tetrameter line. Stress is the prominence given to one part of a word or longer utterance. What is concerned here is mainly stress in longer utterance, i.e. in a sentence or passage. Intonation is the distinctive pattern of rise and fall in pitch taking place during connected speech. It determines the mood of the clauses and sentencesGraphology refers to the writing system of a language. In stylistics, it studies symbols which are distinctive. Semantics concerns with how meaning is achieved in a text as a whole.In stylistic analysis, the level of semantics concentrates on how the cohesive devices, paragraphing, discourse/text patterning, rhetorical devices contribute to the meaning of the text as a whole.Reference refers to the phenomenon that some units of language can only be explained by referring to some other elements in the real world, in the text above or below.Conjunction refers to the elements which connect the clauses and sentences in a text, including conjunctions, conjunctive phrases and adverbs, prepositional phrases, such as afterwards, then, firstly, finally, besides.A text is a stretch of language which forms a semantic unit and is COHESIVE in form (i.e. well connected in form) and COHERENT in meaning (i.e. naturally or reasonably inter-related in content)A paragraph is a smaller semantic unit within a text which consists of sentences connected through the various cohesive devices.Lexicology The study of the meaning of words and lexical items and their distribution in relation to one another;Nonce Words: words coined for one occasion, especially in literary texts. Neologisms: new words and expressions for new concepts and thingsSlang - characteristic of some social dialectsColloquial - intimate conversation, personal lettersLiteral - contracts, legal documents, formal lettersArchaism - language of liturgy(religious ceremony), legal language, poetic language (antiqueness, solemnity)Neologism - news reporting, scientific writingsJargon - in science and technology Argot /a:gou/(黑话) - language used by certain group of people such as thievesDeclarative sentences state a fact or the opinion and are therefore preferred in informative texts (e.g. expositive writing, news reports, technical writing, law documents or narration)Imperative sentences give an order, command, request, or appeal, and are mainly found in conative/vocative texts (e.g. recipes or instructions, ad)Exclamatory sentences show feelings such as surprise, happiness, anger, etc. and are preferred in expressive texts (e.g. daily conversation, literature, ad, public speechesInterrogative sentencesasks questions or state doubts and therefore are preferred in conversations, advertisements and public speeches.Long sentencesA long sentence usually contains more than two lines. They can express complicated concepts or reveal the subtle mental activities and thus help to produce a solemn, formal and serious or rich, exuberant, luxurious style.Short sentencesShort sentences consist of only one line or half a line, or even one or two words. Short sentences are usually casual, easy to organize. They are short, brief, emphatic, eye-catching, to the point and therefore can produce direct, terse, concise, clear effect or continuous, compact, swift effect. Loose sentenceA long sentence with the major idea placed in the beginning and followed by illustrationEffects: easy to grasp ,direct and clear Periodic SentenceA long sentence with the major idea placed at the end. Effects: - creating suspense or expectation - creating humor and emphasis, - creating climax, elegance and formalityPeriodic sentences are often used in literary works and other formal writings and rarely occur in conversations Minor Sentences( incomplete in structure)Minor sentences do not conform to the regular grammatical structures. They are irregular in one way or another.Inverted SentencesFunctions: to produce some emphatic effect; to link the pre-text with the following text; to make a periodic sentenceRhetorical QuestionsFunctions: to express strong emotion (especially in parallel structures) or to emphasize a particular aspect; to make sentences more powerful or persuasive; to attract the readers attention or to induce others sympathy; to introduce the topic of the text Chapter21),foregrounding: the stylistically significant features have to be prominent and motivated ,that is ,foregrounded.2),incongruity: the linguistic features depart from the normal use of language ,breaking the rules grammar ,spelling ,pronunciation.3)deflection : the linguistic features dont depart from the established grammatical, lexical and logical rules and principles ,but have an unexpected high frequency of occurrence.4),field; its concerned with what is happening ,including the subject matter,the events happenings,going-ons, the content ,etc 5)tenor: its concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning -the relationship between the speaker and the listener ,their relative status,their attitude,and their role relations .6)mode: its concerned with how the interaction is conducted ,that is whether it is written or spoken ,or whether it is expressed by phonic substance or graphic substance.Chapter31),chiasmus:chiasmus is formed by inverting the word order of the second part of a parallel structure,so it forms a kind of antithetical structure. Eg:let us never negotiate out of fear,but let us never fear to negotiate.2)antistrophe: it is the repetition of the same items but in inverted order ,eg:whats polly to me,or me to polly?3)epizeuxis:it is a continuous repetition for high lighting a particular feature.4)ploce: the repetition is not continuous , but intermittent or dispersed in the text.5)loose sentence: put the major idea first and than the illustration .such a sentence is easy to grasp .6)periodic sentence:a periodic sentence can be used to create suspense,or expectation, thus drawing the listeners attention to the end of the sentence.it can be used to produce humorous and emphatic effect . Chapter41) Synaesthesia: it refers to the fact that sounds s are attributed with certain values or esthetic features. It is very casual, and supported by situational features and meaning. 2) Alliteration: refers to the repetition of the initial sound usually a consonant, or a vowel at first position, in two or more words that occur close together.3) Assonance: refers to the use of the same or related vowel sounds in successive words. It can create harmonious effect.4) Consonance: refers to the repetition of the last consonants of the stresses words at the end of the lines.Chapter71）Guide: guide is the further explanation of the headline, it consists of six elements; location, character, event, mode, time, and cause.2）Nominalization: refers to a grammatical phenomenon in which the meaning which is normally expressed by a clause is here expressed by a phrase, so clause nominalization is normal. It is contracted. 3）The highlighting method: from the productive point of view, the columnist can publish the whole story, or he can cut off some parts from the end. He can even cut off the main body.4）Meaning contraction: using the smallest form to get the most meaning.5）Journalese words: as new report requires the speaker to use the least form to get the most meaning, and it has to be fresh and attractive, so the words in news report is short and new.Chapter8Learned words: learned words are words that borrowed from Latin, Greek and French.Clichs: are words or expressions which have lost their originality or effectiveness because they have