北大普通心理学听课笔记.doc

北大普通心理学听课笔记第一章 心理学的研究对象、性质和方法 第一节 心理学的研究对象一、心理过程 二、个性心理 1、个性倾向性 又称个性的动力性。 2、个性心理特征 包括人的能力、气质和性格。 3、心理过程与个性心理的关系：（1）、个性心理通过心理过程形成和表现出来的。（2）、先有心理过程，在心理过程的基础上形成个性心理特征。（3）、个性心理形成后，对心理过程有制约作用。 第二节 心理的实质 一、心理是脑的机能1、 心理产生的自然历程；（动物在本能行为的基础上对这些信号刺激建立起暂时联系，形成条件反射。心理学家认为动物的演化只有到了能对有生物学意义的信号刺激作出反应，才可以说有了心理活动，或者说标志着心理现象的产生。）没有神经系统的动物没有心理现象，有神经系统的动物有心理现象。2、 动物心理的发展历程；（1）、感觉阶段。无脊椎动物。（2）、知觉阶段。（3）、思维萌芽阶段。灵长类动物。3、 人类个体发展史证明心理是脑的机能；4、 心理是同脑密切联系着的。二、心理是客观现实的反映1、 客观现实是心理的源泉。 人的心理是对客观现实的反映。社会实践不仅是人的心理产生的基础，而且是人的心理发展的动力。2、 人的心理是客观现实能动的反映。（能动：能认识到事物的本质，能改造客观事实）3、 心理是客观世界的主观映象。 判断：大脑产生思想就象胆囊分泌胆汁一样。（） 第三节 科学心理学的孕育和诞生 心理学有一个很长的历史，有一个很短达到发展历程。一、理学的由来：最具有代表性的是德谟克利特、柏拉图、亚里士多德达到思想。二、科学心理学的诞生：1879年德国的心理学家冯特在莱比锡大学创建了世界上第一个心理学实验室。使心理学从哲学中解放出来成为一门独立的科学。1879年作为心理学发展史上的新纪元，标志着科学心理学的诞生。三、心理学的分支：（简单了解） 第四节 心理学的性质与作用 一、学科性质：1、 是一门基础学科。2、是一门边缘学科。二、心理学的作用 第五节 心理学研究的原则和方法 第二章 心理活动的生理基础-神经系统与脑 第一节 神经系统一、基本单位1、 神经元的结构和机能神经元：即神经细胞。它是神经系统的基本结构单位、功能单位和营养单位，是脑的建筑材料。（1）、结构：是由细胞体和突起构成。细胞体由细胞核、细胞浆和细胞膜组成。突起由轴突和树突构成。（2）、神经元的机能：接受刺激、传递信息、整合信息。神经元的基本机能是：通过树突及胞体接受传来的信息，胞体对信息进行整合，然后通过轴突将信息传给另一神经元。2、 神经元的突触联系及突触传递。（不讲）二、神经系统的结构和机能1、 中枢神经系统(1)、脊髓：白质是轴突集中的地方 灰质是细胞体集中的地方（2）、脑：脑干：延脑 重要的中枢：呼吸中枢、心跳中枢桥脑：联系小脑左右半球的这样，大脑和小脑的联系通路。中脑：瞳孔反射的中枢脑干呈网状结构，人的觉醒状态由脑网来控制的。间脑：丘脑：皮层下较高级的感觉中枢 下丘脑：植物性神经系统的皮下中枢层。小脑：维持身体平衡，保持协调的姿势大脑半球：大脑灰质较薄，含6层神经细胞。 第二节 大脑皮层的机能系统 一、感觉机能系统：感觉中枢-中央后回运动中枢- 中央前回听觉中枢-颞叶视觉中枢-枕叶枕极三、大脑的联合机能系统4、 言语机能联合区（1）、运动性言语中枢（布洛卡中枢）（2）、听觉性言语中枢（威尔尼克中枢）-接受性失语症（3）、视觉性言语中枢-失读症（4）、书写性言语中枢-运动性失写症四、大脑两半球机能的非对称性 论述：大脑两半球的功能对称?吗左右半球的功能是怎样分工的？有什么试验？P44-45 第三节 高级神经活动 巴浦洛夫学说高级神经活动学说1、 兴奋和抑制是高级神经活动的基本过程。2、 反射：是有机体在神经系统的参与下，对内外环境刺激所作出的规律性回答。反射弧：实现反射活动的神经通路（神经结构）称为反射弧。由感受器、传入神经、反射中枢、传出神经和效应器五部分组成。3、 无条件反射和条件反射巴甫洛夫学派的条件反射-经典条件反射桑代克、斯金纳条件反射-操作（工具性）条件反射4、 两种信号系统（巴甫洛夫）第一信号系统：凡是以直接作用于各种感官的具体刺激物为信号刺激所建立的条件反射系统，称为第一信号系统。第二信号系统：以语言为信号刺激所建立的条件反射系统称为第二信号系统，为人所独有。5、 动力定型（亦称定型）：是大脑皮层对刺激的定型系统所形成的反应定型系统。 简答：巴甫洛夫提出动力定型的学说结论 第五章 感觉 一、感觉的概念 是脑对直接作用于感官的事物的个别属性的反映。二、感受性和感觉阈限感受性：是指各感受齐对适宜刺激的感受能力。是用感觉阈限的大小来度量的。感受性与阈限之间的关系：成反比关系。1、 绝对感受性和绝对感觉阈限。2、 差别感受性与差别感觉阈限1840年，德国：韦伯重量差别阈限：K=I/I差别阈限：j.n.d韦伯定率：不同感觉在中等刺激强度范围内的韦伯分数。 另一位：费希纳经验公式 S=K logR 费希纳定律：感觉的大小同刺激强度的对数成正比。 此定律只适用于中等强度的刺激。 第二节 视觉一、产生的必要因素：1、视觉的适宜刺激： 波长380纳米-780纳米之间的电磁波。 2、视杆细胞：呈柱状，密集在视网膜的边缘。 视锥细胞：密集在黄斑的中央凹附近，呈锥状。专门感受强光和颜色，能分辨物体的细节。简答：简要说明视觉（器官）和暗视觉（器官）。P 95二、视觉现象及规律 2、颜色视觉规律及色觉缺陷 （1）、心理学上的颜色定义 （2）、颜色的基本特性 （3）、颜色的混合规律 色光混合 染料的混合1854年，H格拉斯归纳出三条定律：补色律、中间色律、代替律。色觉的缺陷：色弱、局部色盲、全色盲。 简答：色盲产生的原因。P100第三节 听觉 一、1、适宜刺激：16 HZ-20000HZ 2、听觉的传声和感声机制3、 听觉的传导和中枢机制（1）、空气传导 （2）、骨传导二、听觉现象及规律1、 听觉的感受性：对10004000HZ 特别敏感，耐受性也较高。2、 等响度曲线3、 声音的遮掩现象4、 声音的混合 第四节 其他感觉 一、嗅觉与味觉四、机体觉（内脏感觉）五、痛觉：是有机体对伤害性刺激的一种反应。特点： 第五节 感觉的基本规律 一、同一类感觉中的相互作用 1、适应现象（1）、适应：指感受器在同一刺激的持续作用下，感受性发生变化的现象。 暗适应：视觉感受器在暗环境下，岁弱光的感受性不断提高的过程。 光适应。2、 后象和闪光融合现象（1）、后象（2）、分类：正后象、负后象（3）、闪光融合现象3、 感觉对比：同一分析器受不同刺激物的作用，使感受性发生变化的现象，称为感觉对比。（1）、同时对比 （2）、相继性对比（3）、色调对比二、不同感觉中的相互作用 1、2 没有讲3、联觉：是一种感觉兼有别种感觉的心理现象。 第六章 知觉 第一节 知觉的一般概述 一、知觉的定义直接作用于感官的客观事物的整体在人脑中的反映。简答：感觉、知觉的区别和联系。P122-124 第二节 一、知觉的基本特性： 简答、论述1、 知觉的整体性（定义）2、 知觉的恒常性3、 知觉的选择性（理解记忆）4、 知觉的理解性二、影响知觉的心理因素1、 不讲2、 定势（名词或简答） 第三节 一、空间知觉4、深度知觉（立体知觉）分析人的深度知觉是怎样形成的。（1）、单眼线索 对象的重叠 线条透视 空气透视 阴暗与阴影 运动视差 物体的结构级差 眼睛的调节（2）、双眼线索 双眼视轴的辅合 双眼视差 （定义）P146-147 简答：双眼视差是产生深度知觉的机制，能否加以证明？因为实体镜和立体电影都是利用双眼视差的原理制作的，可以产生非常鲜明的立体知觉感。二、时间知觉 （不太容易出题）三、运动知觉1、 真动知觉 2、 似动知觉：物体四、错觉：错觉是在特定条件下，对客观事物所产生的带有某种倾向的歪曲知觉。 第三章 心理与行为的动力系统 -需要与动机 第一节 需要 一、概念及作用1、 需要的概念二、需要的种类（简答）1、 自然需要与社会性需要2、 物质需要和精神需要三、需要的层次理论1、 马斯洛的需要层次理论（论述） 加入理论观点第二节 动机 一、1、 动机的概念2、 诱因的概念3、 动机的来源二、动机的种类1、 好奇与寻求刺激2、 好奇心引发的行为通常表现为以下三种形式： 感官探索 动作操作 口头诘问 第四章 第一节 一般概述 一、注意的定义： 简答、名词1、 指向性2、 集中 二、注意的心理功能 简答1、 选择功能（解释）2、 保持功能（解释）3、 注意的调节和监督功能（解释） 第二节 注意的种类 一、无意注意二、有意注意三、两者之间的关系 第三节 注意的特征 （大题） 一、注意的广度（小题）每条是一个小题二、注意的稳定性（概念）注意的起伏现象三、注意的转移四、注意的分配注意分配的两个条件 第七章 记忆 第一节 概述 一、记忆的定义简答：记忆的过程包括几个环节，它们之间的联系？二、记忆的作用：是一切智慧的根源，是心理发展的基石。三、记忆的分类（了解） 第二节 表象 一、表象的定义二、表象的特征：1、 直观形象性2、 片断、不稳定性3、 概括性4、 可操作性：定义 三、表象的作用： 第三节 记忆的三个系统 保持时间 编码方式 容量 如何转入下一级系统 意识 遗忘原因瞬时记忆 1分以内 鲜明想象 9个以上的项目 注意 自然衰退干扰短时记忆 1分以内 语音形象 72 复述 长时记忆 1分以上 语义形象 无限 一、瞬时记忆1、 定义：指外界刺激的极短的时间一次呈现后，一定数量的信息在感觉通道内迅速被登记并保留一定瞬时的记忆。2、 种类： 3、 特点： 简答二、短时记忆 简答：短时记忆的特点：三、长时记忆 简答：特点 ：长时记忆的信息编码。简答：三个记忆系统的信息是否都意识到？三个记忆系统的编码方式有什么不同，相互联系的方式是什么？论述：试述三个记忆系统。遗忘：定义学说名词：前摄干扰（抑制）和倒摄干扰（抑制）联想：由一种事物想到另一事物的心理活动。联想的种类： 第八章 思维与想象 一、思维及其特征1、 思维2、 间接性表现：3、 概括性： 是把同一类事物的共同性抽取出来，对其本质属性加以概括。 是从部分事物的相互联系中，找到普遍的或必然的联系，并将其推广到同类的现象中去。二、思维的种类1、 根据思维的形态不同可分为：动作思维、形象思维、抽象思维。2、 根据思维探索答案的方向的不同可分为：求同思维、求异思维3、 根据思维是否具有新颖性、独创性进行分类：再生性思维和创造性思维。 二节、三节看 第四节 问题解决的思维过程 一、问题解决（定义）。二、问题解决的思维特点1、 问题 解决的思维是指向性思维。2、 必须有一系列的运算系列3、 必有认知成分的参与。 三、解决问题解决的因素1、 迁移作用2、 不相干多余信息干扰3、 原型启发的作用4、 功能固定性作用5、 动机和情绪6、 定势的作用 第五节 想象 一、什么是想象？简答：形象与表象的区别和联系？三、想象的种类 无意想象和有意想象 第九章 言语 第一节 语言和言语的一般概述 一、语言和言语的区别和联系。二、言语活动的形式1、 外部言语： 口头言语：对话言语和独白言语书面言语2、 内部言语（解释）内部言语的特点： 发音器官活动的隐蔽性 内部言语具有片断性和简缩性 内部言语比外部言语有较快的速度 第二、三节不讲 第十章 情绪与情感 第一节 情绪、情感的一般概述 一、情绪、情感的定义（和认识过程进行比较）二、情绪、情感的区别和联系P260-261三、情绪、情感的两极性两极性表现在哪些方面？（五个方面）什么是两极性？ 第二节 情绪理论 一、詹姆斯兰格情绪理论二、坎农博德丘脑情绪理论三、情绪的三因素理论四、五 不讲 第三节 情绪、情感的外显行为-表情 一、表情的定义二、表情的性质：1、生物性 2、社会性三、表情的种类：面部表情、言语表情、身段表情。 第四节 情绪、情感的类别和功能 一、基本情绪：把快乐、愤怒、悲哀、和恐惧列为基本情绪。二、复合情绪三、情绪状态：按发生的强度，持续时间的长短不同，把情绪分为心境、激情和应激等。四、高级情感：人对具有一定文化价值或社会意义的事物所产生的复合情感。1、 道德感2、 美感3、 理智感五、功能与作用1、 情绪的动机功能2、 情绪的信号功能3、 情绪、情感的易感性功能4、 情绪是意识中最重要的构成因素，具有意识性功能。 第十一章 意志 一、意志的定义三、意志与认知、情感的关系（了解） 第三节 意志行动的分析 一、采取决定阶段二、执行决定阶段 第四节 意志品质 一、意志的自觉性二、意志的果断性三、意志的坚韧性：又叫顽强性或毅力，是指在执行决定的过程中，以坚持不懈的精神克服一切困难，不达目的誓不罢休的品质。 与坚韧性相反的品质是顽固、执拗、动摇。四、意志的自制性：是指一个人善于管理自己的能力。与自制力相反的品质是任性和怯懦。 第十二章 能力 第一节 概述 一、能力含义：指顺利而有效的完成某项活动所必须的个性心理特征，他是一般人都具有的心理现象。 各种能力的结合就叫才能。二、能力的分类（不讲） 第二节 智力、智力结构和智力测验 一、什么是智力？名词或简答二、智力测试1、 比奈-西蒙量表2、 斯坦福-比奈量表 智商：IQ=智力年龄（MA）/实际年龄（CA）*100%3、 韦克斯勒智力量表 三节 能力的个别差异Therefore, that which is forceful and aggressive may seem to have the upper hand, but in fact occupies a lower position of disadvantage. Conversely, being yielding and flexible may be perceived as a weakness, but is in fact a great strength that occupies a higher position leading to victory and success.NotesAs mentioned above, this Tao principle pervades all aspects of life. That is why the hard sell never yield long-term success. Salesmen who study closing techniques and apply pressure to seal a deal are not the ones with the best results, the most satisfied customers, and repeat business.Master practitioners of the soft sale - the salesmen who apply no pressure, but only provide attention, service, and assistance to customers, and thereby win their trust. Once the trust has been earned, no techniques are necessary to close the transaction. That trust may also lead to repeat business as well as referrals.77The Tao of heavenIs like drawing a bowLower that which is highRaise that which is lowReduce that which is excessiveAdd to that which is insufficientThe Tao of heavenReduces the excessiveAnd adds to the insufficientThe Tao of people is not soReducing the insufficientIn order to offer to the excessiveWho can offer their excess to the world?Only those who have the TaoTherefore sages act without conceitAchieve without claiming creditThey do not wish to display their virtue The workings of the Tao can be compared to archery - specifically to the act of drawing the bow to fire off an arrow.If the arrow is pointing too high, the archer must lower the aim. If the aim isnt high enough, the archer must compensate by tilting up.The amount of strength that goes into pulling back the bowstring has to be just right. If its too much, the arrow will overshoot the target, so one has to reduce any excessive force.On the other hand, if the archer fires off the arrow with insufficient force, it will fall short of the target. In order for the arrow to fly true, the archer must put more strength into the bow and draw back further.This is similar to natural laws in that the Tao also acts in a balanced way. It tends to reduce whatever is too much, and add to that which is not enough. Thus, everything in the world is constantly moving toward equilibrium.(For instance, a pot of hot water, if left alone, will gradually cool off. Just as certainly, ice cubes will melt and become cold water that will, over time, approach room temperature. This is the way of the heavenly Tao.)The way of people isnt quite like that. People often act in ways opposite to the balancing principle of the Tao. They cut down that which is already lacking and give to that which already has too much.(We can see an aspect of this by noting that all over the world, it is the rule rather than the exception that the rich get richer while the poor get poorer.)Who are the ones that can see this clearly and choose not to follow the herd? Only those who have the Tao. Whenever they have too much of something, they offer the surplus to those who do not have enough.In this way, the Tao sages act in accordance with nature and give in the same way that nature does - without having expectations, claiming credit, or feeling that they are somehow superior for having given.Just like the Tao, they contribute and nurture others without needing to show off. It makes no difference to them if people never find out about the good that they have done. Having the Tao is its own reason and justification.NotesThe lines Lower that which is high / Raise that which is low can also be interpreted as what happens to the bow when the archer pulls back: the top of the bow lowers and the bottom goes up.The same line of thought leads to the idea that the next two lines Reduce that which is excessive / Add to that which is insufficient refer to the process of adjusting the length of the bowstring when making the bow.We have chosen the classical interpretation that refers to aiming instead, because it is clear from the first line that the simile is all about the process of drawing open the bow (to fire an arrow) rather than the process of crafting a bow. All four lines refer to aiming: the archer adjusts the vertical angle of the arrow as well as the amount of force invested in it.In this chapter Lao Tzu offers a penetrating insight into human nature: rather than moving toward balance, people often go contrary to the Tao in unbalancing their lives even more.For instance, note what happens when people overindulge. They do not reduce the indulgence as they should. Instead, they feed it even more. This is how addictions begin.Also note how people jump on bandwagons when it comes to beliefs, attitudes, trends and fads. Rather than to think for themselves, they jump on the bandwagon because so many other people are already on it.78Nothing in the world is softer or weaker than waterYet nothing is better at overcoming the hard and strongThis is because nothing can replace itThat the weak overcomes the strongAnd the soft overcomes the hardEverybody in the world knowsBut cannot put into practiceTherefore sages say:The one who accepts the humiliation of the stateIs called its masterThe one who accepts the misfortune of the stateBecomes king of the worldThe truth seems like the opposite Water appears to be the weakest and softest thing in the world. It always conforms to the shape of its container. Pour it into a bottle, its a bottle; pour it into a cup, its a cup. Water is the ultimate symbol of the yielding and flexible aspect of the Tao.At the same time, there is also nothing better than water at dissolving the hardest and most unyielding rocks. We only have to look around to see how water has carved ravines and canyons out of mountains all over the world. Water is the universal solvent. Nothing can replace it.This observation of water teaches us that despite a yielding, humble appearance, the weak overcomes the strong and the soft overcomes the hard. This is a principle that we can all understand, but somehow cannot put into practice in real life. We still have a tendency to meet force with force. When someone yells at us, we yell back louder; when someone trespasses against us, we retaliate in full measure. plus interest!Thus, the sages teach us that those who have the strength to accept humiliation are extremely rare. Such individuals possess the power embodied in water - seemingly soft and weak, and yet able to overcome the hard and strong. If they apply this power to society, they would achieve complete mastery of leadership at the national level.Such individuals also have the ability to accept misfortunes. Like water, they have the depth of character to contain adversities and difficulties. If they apply this ability to handle negativity at the national level, they would achieve preeminence on a global scale.Thus, by embracing the seemingly weak and soft, one gains personal power. This is a truth that, at first glance, would appear to be contrary to our expectations!79After settling a great disputeThere must be remaining resentmentsHow can this be considered good?Therefore the sage holds the left part of the contractBut does not demand payment from the other personThose who have virtue hold the contractThose without virtue hold the collectionsThe Heavenly Tao has no favoritesIt constantly gives to the kind people It doesnt matter how we say no hard feelings, after a bitter dispute, theres bound to be ill-will and negative feelings. This cannot be a good thing.Sages dont get into disputes in the first place because they give to others without expecting anything in return. It is as if they hold the left half of the lending agreement - the lenders copy - but do not use it to extract loan payments from the borrower.Those who possess virtue are like the sages. Metaphorically speaking, they also hold the left half of the lending agreement. They give; they do not take.Those who lack virtue are like the tax collectors. It is as if they hold the collections notice over other people. They take from everyone and give to no one.Given this is the case, how can it be that generous souls prosper while misers seem to be forever pinching pennies? Shouldnt those who only take end up with more than those who only give?It is not because the Tao plays favorites and treats giving people better. It is because the karmic principle - the Law of Cause and Effect - ensures that those who give in accordance with the Tao will always receive abundantly.NotesWhen the ancient Chinese people began building their civilization some five thousand years ago, they found themselves in need of a way to keep track of debts.The method had to somehow be proof against forgery, so less trustworthy individuals wouldnt borrow funds and then deny it or claim a smaller amount. Also, this was back in the days before the invention of paper, so that made the problem even more difficult.What they came up with was clever. Lender and borrower would get a piece of wood or tree bark, and carve the record of their transaction and agreement on it. Then, this contract would be split apart in the middle. The left part goes to the lender; the right to the borrower.Thus, the left side of the contract is the lenders proof that he has a right to demand payments. When the loan has been paid, the lender gives the left side to the borrower, thus making the contract whole.Because the tear in the wood or bark is uneven, it serves as the perfect and natural way to authenticate. A forged left side will never be able to match the right side - a brilliant solution.The Tao of GivingSomeone who gives in accordance with the Tao observes the following guidelines:1) Appropriate amount. Tao cultivators would not give so much that they damage their own ability to continue giving in the future. The important thing is to be like a small stream that keeps flowing, as opposed to an upended barrel that splashes water everywhere and has no more to give.2) Detachment. Tao cultivators give with no expectations or attachments. They give only for the sake of giving, not to win recognition or showcase their generosity.3) Based on need. Tao cultivators look for opportunities where giving would make the most significant difference for someone in need. In a snowstorm, they would deliver coal to someone who has trouble staying warm. This may not be very expensive to do, but it has meaning for the recipient that is priceless.4) Not necessarily tangible. Tao cultivators recognize that material things and monetary values are not the only ways to give. They are also ready to give an encouraging word, a cheery greeting, a smile, a blessing, a pat on the back, a helping hand, recognition, forgiveness, courtesy, praise. The world is full of wonderful ways to give.80Small country, few peopleLet them have many weapons but not use themLet the people regard death seriouslyAnd not migrate far awayAlthough they have boats and chariotsThey have no need to take themAlthough they have armors and weaponsThey have no n