期末语言学复习重要资料.doc

1 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Language design features 1 Arbitrariness 2 Duality3 Productivity4 Displacement5 Cultural transmission Linguistics is the scientific study of language The scope of linguistics phonetics 语音学 the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified Phonetics studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description classification and transcription Phonology 音系学 the study of how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning It identifies the set of speech sounds for each language how they are arranged to form meaningful units and the function of each sound morphology 形态学 the study of the form of words It identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and looks into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words syntax 句法学 the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences It investigates the rules governing the combination of words into sentences and identifies the permissible sequences in a language and the relationships between elements in sentence structure semantics 语义学 the study of meaning pragmatics 语用学 the study of meaning in context of use It looks into the relation between linguistic expressions on the one hand and objects persons and events to which the words refer on the other It also studies the ways in which the meaning in a language is structured and distinguishes different types of meaning historical linguistics 历史语言学 the study of language change It is concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved in language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages Parole 言语 the realization of langue in actual use Competence 语言能力 the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language 二 Phonetics A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description classification and transcription Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 from the speakers point of view how speakers produce speech sounds Auditory phonetics 声学语音学 from the hearers point of view how sounds are perceived Acoustic phonetics 听觉语音学 from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another Speech organs three important areas Pharyngeal cavity the throat The oral cavity the mouth Nasal cavity the nose Phonology 音系学 Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds that is the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages Phonetics it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages it aims to answer questions like how they are produced how they differ from each other what phonetic features they have how they can be classified etc Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication 四 Syntax 句法学 a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences Morphology 形态学 refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed Derivational morphemes 派生语素 are affixes added to an existing form to create a word Inflectional morphemes 曲折语素 the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers signifying such concepts as tense number case and so on they never change their syntactic category never add any lexical meaning Morphological rules The rules that govern the formation of words 五 Semantics 语义学 the study of language meaning Naming theory Plato Words are names or labels for things The conceptualist view Ogden Richards Contextualism Bloomfield Meaning should be studied in terms of situation use context elements closely linked with language behavior Situational context 情景语境 spatiotemporal situation 语言语境 Behaviorism attempted to define meaning as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer Sense and reference 系统意义和外指意义 are both concerned with the study of word meaning They are two related but different aspects of meaning Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form it is abstract and de contextualized It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in Reference what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non linguistic world of experience Componential analysis 成分分析法 a way to analyze lexical meaning The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic features Predication analysis 述谓分析法 a way to analyze sentence meaning Predication 述谓 the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence A predication consists of argument s and predicate An argument 论元 a logical participant in a predication largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence A predicate 谓词 something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence 六 Pragmatics the study of language in use or language communication the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication Pragmatics vs semantics Semantics is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence without taking context into consideration Pragmatics the study 2 of the intended meaning of a speaker taking context into consideration e g Today is Sunday semantically it means that today is the first day of the week pragmatically you can mean a lot by saying this all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker say making a suggestion or giving an invitation Context 语境 Context a basic concept in the study of pragmatics It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer such as cultural background situation time place manner etc the relationship between the speaker and the hearer etc sentence meaning bstract and context independent meaning literal meaning of a sentence having a dyadic relation as in What does X mean utterance meaning concrete and context dependent meaning intended meaning of a speaker having a triadic relation as in What did you mean by X Cooperative principle CP According to Grice in making conversation there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe It goes as follows Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged 1 The maxim of quality Do not say what you believe to be false Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence 2The maxim of quantityMake your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 3The maxim of relation Be relevant4The maxim of manner Avoid obscurity of expression Avoid ambiguity Be brief Be orderly Conversational implicature 会话含义 In real communication however speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly These maxims can be violated for various reasons When any of the maxims is blatantly violated i e both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation our language becomes indirect then conversational implicature arises 八 Speech community语言社区 the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community Speech variety 语言变体 any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers regional dialect 地域方言 Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region e g Br E and language switching occurs when the situation changes This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism Diglossia 双语现象 refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism But in stead of two different languages in a diglossia situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community with each having a definite role to play 九 The relationship between language and culture The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background Language expresses cultural reality reflects the people s attitudes beliefs world outlooks etc The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially historically and metaphorically Culture also affects its people s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life On the one hand language as an integral part of human being permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world language both expresses and embodies cultural reality on the other language as a product of culture helps perpetuate the culture and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people s perception and the way they categorize experiences This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir Whorf Hypothesis Linguistic Determinism language may determine our thinking patterns Linguistic Relativity similarity between languages is relative the greater their structural differentiation is the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be The significance of cultural teaching and learning Learning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture We need to learn enough about the language s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well Cultural overlap 文化重叠 Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings Cultural diffusion 文化扩散 Through communication some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words Intercultural or cross cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures 十 Theories of child language acquisition A behaviorist view of language acquisition Skinners 行为主义语 3 言习得理论 Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation An innatist view of language acquisition Chomsky 先天 论理论 According to the innatist view of language acquisition human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking An interactionist view of language acquisition Jerome Bruner and Jean Piaget 语言习得 的互动观 The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops Critical Period Hypothesis CPH There is an ideal window of opportunity within which we are primed to acquire language birth puberty works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time a specific and limited time period for language acquisition The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty 十一 first language acquisition and second language acquisition The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning Littlewood 1986 SLA is different from first language acquisition InterlanguageKnowledge of a language L2 learners already have a language in place Age L2 learners are older than L1 learnersUltimate attainment In the absence of impairment or deprivation all children succeed in acquiring their L1 But many L2 learners fail to acquire their L2 fully Explicit instruction Children aren t taught their first language But many L2 learners do receive explicit instruction about the L2 grammar Second Language Acquisition the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language Contrastive analysis CA Positive transfer facilitate target language learningNegative transfer interfere or hinder target language learning Error Analysis The contrastive approach to learners errors has shed new light on people s attitudes the errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt sorts of errors Interlingual errors it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence Surface structure corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written 七 构词法 coinage 创新词 clipped words 缩略词 blending 混合法 acronyms 词首字母缩略词 back formation 逆构词法 functional shift 功能转换 borrowing 借代 Changes in the meaning of words Widening of meaning Narrowing of meaning Meaning shift 语义 转换 五 Synonymy 同义关系 Dialectal synonyms 方言 同义词 Stylistic synonyms 语体同义词 collocational synonyms 搭配同义词 semantic synonyms 语义同 义词 Antonymy 反义关系 gradable antonymy 分级反义词 complementary antonymy 互补反义词 relational opposite 关系反义词 Polysemy 一词多 义 polysemicword 多义词 Homonymy 同形异义 homophones 同音异形 bomographs 同型异义 Hyponymy 上下义关系 superordinate 上义词 hyponyms 下义词 co hyponyms 并列下义词 X is synonymous with Y 同义关系 X is inconsistent with Y 前后矛盾 X entails Y 蕴含 X presupposes Y 预示 X is a contradiction 矛盾 X is semantically anomalous 语义反常 六 Speech act theory Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J L Austin 1962 and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication It aims to answer the question What do we d