句子水平写作.doc

第一章 句子水平写作writing at the Sentence Level 句子是以书面方式进行语言交际的基本单位。确切地说，句子是由词或词组按一定的语法规则组合在一起，表达一个完整意思的语言单位。如果违反英语句于的构成所应遵守的语法规则，就会影响语义的表达，就不能准确地向读者传递信息。 许多人由于缺乏句子结构方面的基本训练，因此在写英语句列入觉得无从下手，于是就生硬地按汉语语法规则(主要是词序)词对词地去直译，拼凑成一种所谓的中式英语。由于句子的构成违反了英语语法规则，其含义势必令人费解。句于是表达思想的基本语言单位。无论是享有盛名酌巨著，还是一篇普通的文章，都是由句子组成的。我们表达思想首先要选择所需要的词汇，再按照一定的顺序和语法关系，将词组成句子。培养正确地使用句子表达思想的能力，对于英语写作是非常重要的。我men要想写出好的短文应当从写好句子开始。只有踏踏实实地掌握写句子的基本功，才能为短文写作汀下坚实的语言基础。 第一节 英语句子的种类 Kinds of Sentence英语句子从交际功能的角度可分为：陈述句(The Declarative Sentence)、疑问句(interrogative sentence)、祈使句(The Imperative Sentence)和感叹句(The exclamatory Sentence)四种。 陈述句 用来叙述一项事实的句子叫陈述句。这种句子是英语中最常见的句子，分肯定陈述句和否定陈述句两种类型，句末用句号。例如： Ecology is the science of the relationship between organisms and their environment. 生态学是生物及其周围环境关系的科学。 Despite a1l his talent，he is not much of a writer 虽然他很有才华，但他不算是一个作家。 疑问句 用来提出某种疑问的句子叫疑问句。疑问句分为:一般疑问句the General Question)、特殊疑问句(The Special Question)、选择疑问句(The Alternative Question)和反意疑问句(The Disjunctive Question)四种类型，句末用问号。例如： Have you finished drawing up a plan for increasing production? 你制定完增产计划方案了吗? Whats your speciality? 你的专业是什么? Is your father an engineer or a teacher? 你的父亲是工程师还是教师? You raised five questions at the press conference，didnt you? 你在记者招待会上提了五个问题，是吧?祈使句 用来表示请求、命令、警告或建议的句子叫祈使句。句末用感叹号或句号。 Save the environment! 拯救环境 Take a seat, please. 请坐。 感叹句 用来表示喜怒哀乐等强烈感情的句子叫感叹句。句末用感叹号。 What a polluted lake that is以那个湖污染得多么严重叼! 英语句子从语法结构角度可分为：简单句(The simple sentence)、并列句(The Compond Sentence)及复合句(The Complex sentence)三种。简单句的基本结构是构成各类句子的基础；两个或两个以上约简单句可以联结成并列句；简单句的所有句子成分可以扩展成从句而构成复合句。 简单句 只包含一个主语和谓语的句子叫简单句。一个句子有时虽有两个或两个以上并列的主语或谓语，但仍为简单句。例如 Both sugar and water can be dissolved in water 糖和盐都可陷于水。 并列句 包含两个或两个以上的主谓结构的句子MH并列句。在意义上，这些有关联的分句是同等重要的；在语法结构上，它们是平行的相互间没有从属关系。并列句的各个分句常用一定的并列连词连结起来。例如： water is not only the most common liquid in the world, but it is also the most important 水不但是世界上最普通的，也是最重要的液体。 复合句 由一个主句和一个或更多的从句构成的句子叫复合句。复合句的主句为全句的主体，从句只是整个句于的一个成分，不能独立并在句法关系上从属于主句。例如； Drastic action must be taken if we are to reduce traffic accidents and air pollution. 要想减少交通事故，及空气污染，我们必须采取严厉措施。第二节 英语基本句型 Basic Sentence Patterns 学习一种外国语言，常常会受到母语的影响中国人学习英语也不例外。许多人学习英语花费了不少的时间，写出来的句子，有些还是中式英语即汉语化的英语。这是因为汉语同英语在句子表达上，特别是在习惯用法上，存在着很大的差异。因此，为了帮助学习者克服母语影响，避免中式英语的错误，学列较为标准的英语句了的表达方式，就必须培养熟练使用句型的能力。因为句子不管如何丰富多彩，变化多端，总有一定的规律可循。学习各种英语句型是实际掌握英语造句规律的基本方法之一。 英语基本句型实际上就是简单句的基本句型。一般说来动词是英语句子的主干。由于使用不同类型的动词，英语简单句的主要成分就会不同，从而形成了英语简单句的不同句型。因此，我们分析英语句子的结构，首先要弄清句子中动词的特点。英语中的动词可分为及物动词(transitive Verb)、不及物动词(Intransitive Verb)相系动词(Linking verb)等。及物动 词后必须跟有宾语，其意义才能完整。宾语可分为单宾语，双宾语和复合宾语三种。使用不同类别的动词，可以构成简单句五种不同的基本句型。现对各句型的ts成、持点和意义分述如下： 1. S十v(主语十谓语) 在sv句型中，s常为名词或代词。v为不及物动词、可在年中单独作谓语。这一句型常带有状语(Adverbial)。状语A可以是副词、介词短语、不定式或从句等。表示时间、地点、程度、方式、目的、原因等。例如； Your reputation will suffer. 你的声誉将受到损害 We jumped with joy to hear the exciting result 听列令人兴奋的结果我们高兴沼跳耙央。2s十v十c(主语十谓语十补语) 在sVc句型中，v为系动词，c为主语的补语(或称表面)，系动词在句中不能单独作谓语，它和说明或表示主语身份、持征及状态的补语一起构成合成谓语。 主语的补语可以是名词、形容词、数词、分词、不定式和从句等。常见的系动词有：appear，be，become，feel，get，go，grow，prove, remain, seem，sound，taste，turn，etc.如： The advertisement sounds exaggerated 这个广告听起来夸大其词。 H uman rights are a major concern in todays world 人权是当今世界关注的主要问题。 The result of the experiment is very encouraging 实验的结果令人满意。 My idea is that we should stick to our original plan 我的意思是我们应当按原计划办事。 3，S十V十 O (主语十谓语十宾语) 在svo句型中，v为及物动词，o为宾语。宾语可以是名词、代词、数词、动名词、不定式、短语或从句等。在宾语后常可带有状语A。例如： I finished reading the books assigned by the teacher 我读完了老师指定的书籍。 Chinas ancient culture has attracted many people in the world 中国的古代文化吸引了世界各地的许多人。 A recent investigation has shown that most primary school students cannot finish their homework before bedtime. 最近的调查表明多数的小学生就寝前不能完成作业。 有些及物动词常要求不定式作宾语。这样的动词有：ask, attempt, begin, decide，determine，forgethatehelp，hope，learn，offer，pledge，prefer, pretend，start, try, want，etc例如： I want to make our city more beautiful by planting trees。 我希望通过植树使我们的城市更美丽。 有些及物动词后常要求功名词作宾语。这样的动词有：avoid, canhelp(禁不住)，deny，enjoy，finish，likemind，regret，require，postpone，practise，etc例如： Some people enjoy collecting coins and stamps, others choose to spend their time on sports or music 一些人喜欢收集硬币和邮票；另一些人愿意把时间用在运动或音乐上。 ； 一些及物动词后既可以跟不定式也可以跟动名词作宾语, 这类动词有：begin，continue，hate，intend, like，prefer，propose，start，etc例如：we began studying(to study) English three years ago 我们三年前开始学英语。 上面这类动词后接不定式或动名词在意义上差别不大，但在forget，need，remember, stop，want等动词后接不定式，或是动名词意义差别就比较明显了。动词一ing形式表示已经发生的动作，不定式表示要发生的动作。例如； I remember closing the window 我记得关了宙子。(窗子已关) I must remember to close the window 我必须记住要关宙子。(宙子没关) 4. S十v十Oi十Od(主语十谓语十间接宾语十直接宾语) 在SvOiOd句型中，v为及物动词，其后要有两个宾语意思才能完整。Oi为间接宾语，用于指人，常用名词或代词表示。Od为直接宾语用于指物，例如； The computer gives Tom English lessons 计算机给汤姆上英语课。 I shall tell my people everything about your achievement 我将向我的人民讲述你们的每一个成就。 间接宾语有时用to或for引起的短语表示. 如： Ill return him the book he lent me. Ill return the book he lent me to him 我要把他借我的书还给他。 5s十v十o十c(主语十谓语十宾语十宾语补足语) 在svOc句型中，V为及物动词c为宾语补足语。V后除有直接宾语外，还有宾语补足语才能使句子的意义表达完整。直接宾语与它的补足语一起构成复合宾语。它们在逻辑上有“主谓”关系。句型中的c可以是名词、形容词、副词、分词、不定式或介词短语。常见的这类动词有：believe，cal1，consider，cut，find，keep，make，name，think，ect例如； we consider Beijing the brain and heart of China. 我们把北京看作是中国的大脑和心脏。 Some people considered hard work distasteful 一些人觉得艰苦的工作使人厌烦。 要求不定式作宾语补足语的动词有：advise，ask，believe，call on, cause，help，prefer,think，etc这类动词要求不定式作宾语补足语时领带不定式记号“to”。例如： I should like the problem to be discussed at the meeting. 我想把问题提交会议讨论。 此外动词fel，have，hear，let，notice，make，see，watch等要求不定式做宾语补足语时，省赂不定式记号“to”。动词help后的“to”可省去，也可保留。例如； His mother made him take the medicine 他的母亲强迫他吃药。 The boy help me (to ) move the bed 男孩帮我期这张床。当这类句子变为被动语态时不定式记号“to”应保留。例如He was made to take the medicine. 第三节 如何写好英文句子一篇好的文章自然离不开好的句子，而写好句子包括两方面：一是语法正确，二是修辞得体。中国的学生，往往按照说中文的方式组织英文句子，造成语法错误和修辞错误。例如：（1）Tom with his elder brother, both looking very excited, were very, very talkative that night. （主谓不一致） （2）Hello, Paul, I dont expect to meet you here. （时态有错误） （3）Fish were toasted by the boys on the end of long pointed sticks.（修辞不当，容易产生歧义）（4）He will be here tomorrow afternoon is certain. （主语从句缺少引导词that，或是is certain 多余）可见，写好一个句子并不简单，要注意很多方面。一首先是要写一个完整的句子。而写一个完整的句子，一般来说，要做到以下三点：（1）有一个主语；（2）有一个谓语；（3）表达的意思完整而明确。因此，写句子时要避免两种现象：a.句子残缺不全；b.句子冗长，本该层次分明的意思，全写在一起。从下面的例句中我们可以有所领悟：例文 Harvey was still at the table. While the other guests has retired to the drawing room.解析：由于从属句只能附属于一个主句，不能单独作一个句子。所以本句应改成：Harvey was still at the table, while the other guests has retired to the drawing room.例文To cover his car. Walt combed long strands of hair over his forehead.解析：非谓语动词不能单独作一个句子，所以它可改成：To cover his car, Walt combed long strands of hair over his forehead.例文Paul decided to stop smoking, he did not want to die of lung cancer.解析：两个句子意义都很完整，但没有连接词连接，故显得冗长。可以改成：Paul decided to stop smoking. He did not want to die of lung cancer.或Paul decided to stop smoking, because he did not want to die of lung cancer. 二、使用主动语态在作文中使用主动语态句式，具有以下优点：1、主动语态句式给人以身临其境的动感例文Like a bird in flight, his arms were stretched out and then tucked to cut wind resistance.解析：上面这句话不仅呆板生硬，还会使人们误认为他的臂膀像只小鸟。原句作者是想描写滑雪者滑行动作像飞翔的小鸟。所以若将上句变成主动语态句式，（Like a bird in flight, the skier stretched out his arms and then tucked them to cut wind resistance.）原句就清楚明白多了。2、主动语态句式具有直截了当的特点例文My first visit to China will always be remembered.解析：这个被动语态句式不仅读起来软弱无力，还会引起误解，究竟是作者本人，还是文中未提及的某个人，还是全世界人民都记住这次旅行呢？上句话改成主动语态句式：I shall always remember my first visit to China.就显得非常明白易懂了。3、主动语态句式具有精确、具体、有力的特点例文At dawn, the crowing of a rooster could be heard.解析：上面这个被动态句式有些隐约含糊。若改为：The cocks crow came with dawn.就显得非常干脆有力。上文简介了主动语态的一些特征，但并不意味着排斥被动语态句式。被动语态句式在科技文章、抽象定义及介绍等诸方面还是有其一席之地的。作者应根据文章的题材、角度选用适当的语态。例：The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today.（这个被动语态句式可用于介绍戏剧家的文章中。）又例：Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.（这个主动语态句式可用于介绍现代读者口味的文章中。） 二、EXERCISE转换下列句式为主动语态，并体味不同语态的用法特点：1. This problem will be looked into by the vice chancellor of the university.2. Such success was never dreamed of when we first started.3. A book may be borrowed for two weeks by you.4. She has been sent to Japan to study by the Institute.5. The books may not be taken out of the room by you.6. He was given a blood transfusion by the doctor.7. He was thought to be clever but dishonest.8. I was alarmed at his behavior.9. His plans were known to everyone.10. The washing machine is being repaired by my brother right now.三、句子开头的多样化英语是一种句型结构灵活多变的语言。由于拘泥于传统语法框架，许多初学写作的人都喜欢用名词开头写句子。这样写倒也无可非议，但若通篇文章都是同样结构的句子，就显得呆板生硬、缺乏生气了。事实上，在英语写作中除名词可放在句子的开头外，许多其他词类及词组均可放在句子开头的位置。例文Women leave their homes to take a fuller part in society as time passes.解析：上面这句话至少可以还有下列一种开头方式：To take a fuller part in society, women leave their homes as time passes.例文The sparkling, crystal-clear water rolls up against the beach as I take my morning stroll.解析：这句话可变换成下列句子：As I take my morning stroll, the sparkling, crystal-clear water rolls up against the beach.Crystal-clear, the sparkling water rolls up against the beach as I take my morning stroll.The sparkling water crystal-clear rolls up against the beach as I take my morning stroll.所以说，根据需要变换句子开头，会使文章增色。EXERCISE变换下列句子的开头方式：1. Jim was upset last night because he had to do too many homeworks.2. The story may be the most flexible of all forms of fiction.3. The girls were sorry to have missed the singers when they arrived at the airport.4. Mark Twain arrived at a small town in the course of one of his lecture trips.5. She was the young girl in the photo, although she was now much older.6. The United States was composed of 11 free states and 10 slave states at the beginning of 1819.7. History denotes the whole of the human past in its broadest sense.8. There is obviously no easy solution to this problem.9. I have tested them now and then to discover what they see.10. We put on our galoshes and walked up the sunny side of Fifth Avenue to Central Park on the afternoon of the first day of spring, when the gutters were still heaped high with Mondays snow but the sky itself was swept clean.四、长短句相间写文章时，最好是长句、短句交替使用。全部用短句，不仅使人感到作者水平有限，而且不能表达较复杂的意思。全部用长句，则给人以晦涩难懂的感觉。因此，最好是长、短句相间，该长则长，该短则短。下面这篇文章中有两个缺点：一是句子太短，显得平淡无奇；二是句子开头缺乏变化。Salk completed college in 1934. Salk entered medical school. His ambition was to do medical research. Science meant research to him. His school adviser told him that there would be few financial. Rewards in research. He replied: “There is more in life than money.” He even interrupted his medical training for a year to do research in chemistry. Finally, he became a doctor. He joined the staff of the school of Public Health at the University of Michigan. He worked as a research associate there in the study of influenza, looking for a possible vaccine against this disease.若运用句子开头多样化与长短句相间的原则进行适当改写，效果就好多了。请看下文：After completing college in 1934, Salk entered medical school. His ambition was to do medical research. To him, science meant research. Even when his school adviser told him that there would be few financial rewards in research, he replied: “There is more in life than money?” He even interrupted his medical training for a year to do research in chemistry. Finally, after becoming a doctor, he joined the staff of the school of Public Health at the University of Michigan, there worked as a research associate in the study of influenza, looking for a possible vaccine against this disease.上文用一个短句：His ambition was to do medical research. 这个短句使全段中心更明显、突出。在写作时，尤其是在一系列长句后，适当地用个短句作总结，会给读者留下深刻的印象。EXERCISE用长短句相间的原则改写下列短文：Ernest Heminway was born in 1898. He started writing as a newspaper reporter. He then went to Europe and took part in World War I. The war played an important part in his books, but he never projected a mindless combativeness. He knew the suffering of that war would bring. He showed it better in his short story “In Another Country” than anywhere else.第四节 将句子中最强调的成分放在句尾五、将句子中最强调的成分放在句尾在英文写作中，文章结尾段是最需要强调的，结尾段给读者留下的印象也最为深刻。同样，一个句子最强调的部分是尾句，尾句给读者留下的印象也最为深刻。英文句子结尾是最强调部分，句子开头是次强调部分，中间是不强调部分。在修辞学中，常把主干放在修饰语之前的句子叫平言句(loose sentence)，而把主干放在修辞语之后的句子叫显尾句(periodic sentence)。显尾句的强调功能体现在其主干被放在句尾这一重要位置。请看下列句子的强式与弱式：例一 弱式：We will be committing a great error if we still do not try to control our population growth. 强式: If we still do not try to control our population growth, we will be committing a great error.例二 弱式：The Americans might have lost the Revolutionary War if France had not come to their aid. 强式：If France had not come to their aid, the Americans might have lost the Revolutionary War.例三 弱式：I would not have made such progress but for the help of my teachers. 强式：But for the help of my teachers, I would not have made such progress.例四 弱式：Tom graduated with highest honors, I was told. 强式：Tom, I was told, graduated with highest honors.例五 弱式：This steel is mainly used for making razors, because of its hardness.强式：Because of its hardness, this steel is mainly used for making razors.例六：弱式：Everybody assumed that he had been killed when the plane exploded. 强式：When the plane exploded, everybody assumed that he has been killed.例七：弱式：You are entitled to try again in a make-up exam if you fail 强式：If you fail, you are entitled to try again in make-up exam.例八：弱式：Many foreigners are turned off at the sight of dog meat and snake meat because of the cultural differences. 强式：Because of cultural differences, many foreigners are turned off at the sight of dog meat and snake meat.例九：弱式：It instantly turns into gold as soon as he touches it, no matter what it is. 强式：No matter what it is, as soon as he touches it, it instantly turns into gold.例十：弱式：She will recover, the physician says. 强式：The physician says she will recover.总而言之，弱式句子在日常会话、非学术性文体中，以及细节描写中运用较为广泛。弱式句子的特点是生动有趣，善于描绘细节。偶尔运用弱句，可避免文章过于呆板、正式，给读者以轻松感，这是因为弱句符合人类自然思维方式，先产生主概念，再产生从概念。但是如果通篇文章全部或大部分都采用弱句，就会使文章变成粗糙、原始、结构松散的流水账。因此，在写作中，我们应该避免过多地使用弱句。请读下列这个基本由弱句组成的段落例文 The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston symphony orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive program will be presented.解析：上面这段文字由于过多地使用了弱句，使整段结构松散，杂乱无章，读者细读之后，也抓不住中心思想。若是日常会话中说出上面这段话，还能让人接受，但是如果写一篇介绍性文章，上文就显得水平有限了。下面我们再仔细阅读采用强式句对上文的改写：The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening. A large audience was in attendance. Mr.Edward, the soloist, showed himself to be an artist of the first rank. The Boston Symphony Orchestra which furnished the instrumental music proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. Gratified with the interest aroused by the series, the committee planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert with an equally attractive program will be given on Tuesday, May 10.对初学者，当我们发现习作中用了太多的弱句时，可以根据文章的需要，选用下列方式来修改：用简单名，不用复合弱句；用强式句，将句子主干放在句尾；用分号。Exercise将下列弱式句变为强式句：1. The anti-pollution law was carried unanimously in the National Congress.2. You should close the door when you are making a phone call.3. He realized that she was crying because of what he had said.4. Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.5. Almost all the people turned out to welcome the delegation when the delegation arrived at this city.6. In effect, she is his manager.7. Little learning can take place as long as students whisper among themselves, look at their watches, read newspapers, and write letters in class.8. He will be the first to come and the last to leave whenever there is a lecture on international affairs.9. He is a man to be depended on in the times of difficulty.10. It turned out that the old man was only sleeping while his children argued about his will.11. He is still having financial troubles as he has eldly parents to look after.12. There is still a long way to go before we can catch up with the worlds most advanced level. 六、避免时态转换不当时态转换不当是初学写作的人最常犯的错误之一。转换不当包括一句话内的时态误用，还包括上句与下句间承接连贯过程中的时态误用。例如在英语中既可用过去时态也可用现在时态（所谓historical present tense）来表现过去发生的事件，但是不能将这两种用法混用，不能随心所欲地将现在时、过去时任意转换。例一 时态转换不当：In Walden Thoreall says that his sojourn in the woods was an experiment in simple living, he did not say that he was trying to escape from civilization.正确句：In Walden Thoreall said that his sojourn in the woods was an experiment in simple living; he did not say that he was trying to escape from civilization.例二 时态转换不当：In the chapter in Walden entitled “Economy”, Thoreall tells how he build his own cabin and raised his own food; he claimed that his food cost him only about one dollar a month. 正确句：In the chapter in Walden entitled “Economy”, Thoreall told how he build his own cabin and raised his own food; he claimed that his food cost him only about one dollar a month.例三 时态转换不当：Aristole says that the good life calls for moderation; he suggested ways in which we can avoid the extremes that cause us pain. 正确句：Aristole says that good life ca