中英委婉语对比研究.doc

摘要委婉语是一种语言现象，同时也是一种普遍的社会现象。它是语言使用中人们用来协调人际关系的有效润滑剂，是保全交际双方面子的重要手段。作为语言的重要组成部分，委婉语一直以来都是国内外语言学家们研究的对象，他们从社会学、人类学、社会语言学、语用学及话语分析等角度对其进行了研究。在这些研究的基础上，本文进一步分析比较英汉委婉语的异同，归纳总结语言学习者在跨文化交际中使用委婉语时所应遵守的原则，以帮助语言学习者克服交际障碍，减少交际失误，提高交际能力。本文首先阐述了委婉语的定义、特点、分类及英汉委婉语的发展；论文第二部分采用对比分析法，从语用范围、语言特点、语用功能和审美意识这几方面探讨英汉委婉语的相似点，帮助语言学习者深入认识了解英汉委婉语；论文第三部分则围绕历史根源，宗教信仰及社会价值观三个方面探讨英汉委婉语的差异性；针对英汉委婉语的异同，论文第四部分具体阐述委婉语使用所应遵循的原则，指出合作原则和礼貌原则是指导语言交际的两个基本原则；论文结尾部分在总结全文的基础上，阐述了英汉委婉语的比较研究对跨文化交际、翻译活动、以及外语教学所具有的深远意义和启示。 关键词委婉语； 对比研究；合作原则；礼貌原则AbstractEuphemism is a common linguistic as well as social phenomenon in daily life. It helps to save face of communicators, thus well coordinates the relationship between addresser and addressee in communication. As an important part of language, euphemism is researched by linguists from home and abroad, whose studies cover a wide range of perspectives from sociology, anthropology, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, to discourse analysis etc. Based on the research finds of past generations, this thesis tries to further analyze the differences between English and Chinese euphemisms and generalize the guiding principles in application of euphemisms in cross-cultural communication, aiming to help language learners overcome communicative barriers, reduce communicative failures and improve communicative ability.In the first part of thesis, definition, features and classification of euphemism are carefully studied, together with general survey of researches background at home and abroad. The second part of this thesis explores the similarities between English and Chinese euphemism around the following aspects: range of use, stylistic features, pragmatic functions and aesthetic consciousness, which helps language learners deeply understand English and Chinese euphemisms. Contrastive analysis of the differences between English and Chinese euphemism in terms of historical origins, religious faith and social values is carried out in the third part of this thesis. Chapter Four further elaborates the guiding principles in the application of euphemisms in details, indicating that the Cooperative Principle and the Politeness Principle are two basic guiding principles in communication. The last part concludes the whole thesis, pointing out the great significance of contrastive study between English and Chinese euphemism, hoping to help language users in cross-cultural communication, translation activities and foreign language teaching.Key Words euphemisms；contrastive study；Cooperative Principle；Politeness Principle A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese EuphemismIntroductionAlmost all cultures seem to have certain notions or things that people try to avoid mentioning directly, when such a notion or thing has to be referred to, the practice will be to substitute a different term or phrase that sounds better. These terms and phrases are called “euphemisms” in English.Many scholars have studied the linguistic phenomenon from different perspectives since it is closely related with peoples daily lives. Studies of euphemisms abroad can be traced to 1580s, when the British writer George Blunt first created the word “euphemism” and defined it as “a good or favorable interpretation of a bad word”（Shu，1995:17). A milestone appeared in 1981 when British linguist Hugh Rawson compiled a dictionary named A Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Double-talk .In the book, he expounded euphemism from the aspect of its definition, classification, features and using domains, etc., and gave a thorough description of the sources. The year 1983 saw the publication of another classic on euphemism :Kind Words-Thesaurus of Euphemisms, compiled by American scholars Neaman and Silver, which supplied detailed interpretation of the euphemized items, and at the same time described the origin, development of euphemisms. In 1991, Allan and Burridge published Euphemism and Dysphemism. This book is very helpful to the study of euphemism from pragmatic perspective.In China, Chinese euphemistic expressions have existed since ancient times, but scientific and systematic studies have been done from 1970s. Chen Wangdao was the first person who proposed a definition of euphemism in Introduction to rhetoric in 1979. From the 1970s to the 1980s, socio-linguistics is popular in China. ChenYuan published Sociolinguistics in 1983, which reveals the nature of the social phenomenon. In 1986, Zhang Gonggui edited A dictionary of Chinese euphemism where the detailed interpretation of the Chinese euphemized items could be looked up in. Bases on the achievements above, this thesis tries to research the English and Chinese euphemisms from the aspects of range of use, pragmatic function, historical origin etc., so as to reveal the universality and specialty of euphemism in two languages, and generalize the guiding principles in the application of euphemisms in cross-cultural communication.1. A General Survey of EuphemismThe primary purpose of the chapter is to give a rough survey about the euphemistic phenomenon. It concerns itself with several subsections dealing with the definition，features，and classification of euphemism respectively.1.1Definitions of EuphemismThe word “euphemism” comes from the Greek “eu”, meaning “good” and “pheme”, meaning “speech” or “saying”, and thus it means literally “to speak with good words”. “A euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience or of some third party” (Allan and Burridge, 1991:18). Rawson Hugh (1981) defined euphemism as mild, agreeable or roundabout words used in place of coarse, painful or offensive ones” (Li, 2000:109). In China, Chen Wangdao was the first person to define euphemism, in his Introduction to Rhetoric, as “one kind of figures of speech, saying something indirectly, but connoting and substituting with roundabout and implicit words or even metaphorical expression” (Chen,1976:135). The Chinese dictionary, Cihai, defines euphemism as “one kind of figures of speech in rhetoric，saying something indirectly, but using implicit or metaphorical expression” (CiHai, 1979: 2528).1.2Features of Euphemism Euphemism is rich and diversified, which can reflect the features of a language. In this sense, euphemism as a kind of polite language is characteristic of indirectness, fuzziness and pleasantness (Tang, 2006:33). This chapter tends to generalize the features of euphemism from the above-mentioned perspectives.1.2.1 IndirectnessThe nature of euphemism lies in its indirectness, which can be explained by one of the formative principles of euphemism, that is, the principle of distance. To achieve successful communication, the most effective way in conversation is to widen the distance between signs and their referents. For example, “room-care specialist” is a euphemism for “maid” and “answer the natures call” is a euphemism for “urinate”. However, the distance between the used words and the real referents cannot be widened unlimitedly. If the employed euphemistic word is excessively indirect, it will lead to misunderstanding or miscommunication. For instance, if you describe a lame man with polio as “He is not good in health”, people may not understand your meaning completely since the distance between the euphemistic expression and the real referential meaning is too wide. But if you change it as“He is handicapped in legs”, the result is completely different. 1.2.2 FuzzinessAs for the euphemistic phenomenon, fuzziness is widely acknowledged as one of its typical features. By using euphemistic expressions, people can make their intentions or meanings more generalized and vague, therefore avoiding upsetting or embarrassing others. For example, in a cocktail party if you tell a gentleman “Your fly is open” directly, the two parties will all feel embarrassed undoubtedly and thus it tends to go against the successful communication. Nevertheless, if you can convey the meaning vaguely and drop him a hint like “You have lost your license”, the result of the communication must be completely different. Besides, euphemisms about “poverty” “crime” “education” and “war” can also be used to explain the fuzziness of euphemism. Specifically speaking, teachers are not likely to express that “She is stupid or obtuse” but “She is a bit slow for her age”. 1.2.3 PleasantnessHere, “pleasantness” does not refer to the superficial meaning of the word. It not only refers to the pleasantness to the human body, but also the pleasantness to the human mind. To satisfy peoples psychological needs for pleasantness, many euphemistic expressions are coined recently with the development of the society. “Indeed, the entire lexicon of working world reveals an overwhelming tendency to make work seem respectable and meaningful” (Neaman & Silver, 1983:291). For instance, “tree-surgeon” is used instead of “tree-trimmer”; “beautician” is used for “barber”. Besides, the replacement of “business cabin” for “the third cabin”, “love child” for “illegitimate child”. Those all present people with a better association therefore creating pleasantness in interpersonal communication.1.3 Classifications of Euphemism According to different standards, euphemism can be classified differently. Here, several kinds of classification of euphemism will be introduced.1.3.1 The Positive and the Negative EuphemismsAccording to Hugh Rawson (1981), from the perspective of semantics, euphemism can be divided into two types: the positive and the negative. “The positive euphemisms inflate and magnify the word meaning, making the euphemized seem altogether grander and more important than they really are” (Rawson, 1981: 1). They include many fancy occupational titles, which save the egos of workers by elevating their job status. Negative euphemisms, which have close relation with tabooed words, are also called “traditional euphemisms” (Enright, 1985). Many tabooed subjects, such as sex, disease, death, excretion, bodily function, etc, which are also tabooed subjects, should be euphemized in this way. 1.3.2 The Unconscious and the Conscious EuphemismsAccording to whether people remember their original motivations or not, euphemisms also can be divided into “unconscious euphemisms” and “conscious euphemisms” by Hugh Rawson (1981).The unconscious euphemisms refer to those, which have been used so long that hardly does anyone remember how they came into being. For example, the word cemetery (from the Greek word for sleeping place or dormitory) serves as a euphemism for graveyard. The word indisposition originally meant incapacity to deal with something, and its euphemistic meaning is slight illness or ill health. Conscious euphemisms are different. When employing this kind of euphemisms, people not only know their original meanings but also understand their implied meanings. For instance, if somebody calls, “Here comes the sanitation man.” everybody understands that sanitation man refers to garbage man and it is time to get out the garbage cans.1.4 The Development of English and Chinese EuphemismsEnglish euphemisms has been surviving and thriving ever since ancient times. The subject of the earliest euphemisms was undoubtedly religious (Numan and Silver, 1983:1). The Anglo-Saxon era is the golden age of linguistic freedom and the source of non-euphemistic four-letter words, but great care was taken not to offend political or religious leaders or gods. There are also euphemistic expressions for prostitution, fertility, childbearing and successful seduction. After Norman Conquest in 1066, euphemisms began to thrive. By the 19th century, middle-and lower-class influence had expanded. They enriched the vocabulary and formation of euphemisms. Euphemisms reached their peak in Victorian period. As the British Empire expanded, the linguistic pattern of the mother country traveled with it and the British euphemisms was developing abroad as well as at home.The history of Chinese euphemisms has been developing with the history of Chinese taboos. According to the record in Zuo Zhuan, people in the Zhou Dynasty began to impose taboos on personal names, so the history of Chinese euphemisms can be traced back at least to the Zhou Dynasty. A large number of taboos emerged in Qin Dynasty, which were recorded in Shi Ji. The record in Han Shu indicated that Chinese euphemisms continued to develop in the Han Dynasty. Euphemisms thrived and flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties. And in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Chinese euphemisms reach its peak (Li, 2001:214). 2. Similarities between English and Chinese EuphemismsSimilarities between English and Chinese euphemisms are outstanding. In this chapter, the author will analyze the similarities from the aspects of range of use, stylistic features, pragmatic functions and aesthetic consciousness.2.1 Similarities in Range of UseTaboo words are those that are considered in bad taste by some people or those are better to be avoided because they mention realities that are stark or vulgar. They refer to sex, diseases, disabilities, necessities such as the act of emptying the bladder or the bowels, and so on. Euphemisms intended to replace the taboo word with a term that is not offensive to any listener.Bad areas such as diseases and disabilities are euphemized both in English and Chinese cultures. Sexual or venereal diseases are called social diseases, the French disease, certain disease, etc. in English; In Chinese such diseases are given names as 花柳病,富贵病, 那种病,etc. Disability is a very sensitive area in every culture. In Chinese, expressions such as残疾人,聋哑人,腿有点不方便,etc. are used instead of 聋子，哑巴，瘸子,etc. In English, the disabled, the handicapped, auditory impaired, hard of hearing, etc. are put into service. In whatever culture, the area of occupation is a most sensitive one, because it directly reflects ones social and economic status. In English, street cleaner and mouse catcher both become engineer; gardener turns into landscape architect; barber into tonsorial artist; jailer into prison officer. In Chinese, 厨师 becomes 美食烹调师; 住房装修工is named 家居装潢设计师; 旅店大堂应待 has a much better title 公关小姐or 公关先生,and so on.2.2 Similarities in Stylistic FeaturesIn both English and Chinese cultures, individuals differ from one another in the way they speak. Some of these differences are systematically associated with particular groups of people: women speak differently from men, and children differently from adults. Euphemisms are such a part of human language that vary from men to women, from children to adults, from time to time, etc. Here is a brief analysis of some of them.(1) Register variationThe notion register here includes the speakers sex, age, social status, level of education, etc. In addition, the context of situation in which euphemisms are used is an important factor as well. Lets take bathroom euphemisms for example. To answer the call of nature, men rear, women powder their nose, adults go to W.C, children go to the pot and make number one. In oral speech, people used to spend a penny or to do ones needs, etc. In Chinese culture, adults often say 去一下洗手间or 去方便一下etc., while the children say 沥沥水. (2)Age variationEuphemisms change as time goes on. Previous expressions become out of date, and new ones come into vogue. Lets take the euphemism She is pregnant for example. She is in an interesting condition (1880); She is knitting little bootees (1910); She is in a family way (1920); She is expecting (1935); She is pregnant (1956) (Chen, 1983). In Chinese, there are also a few expressions of the statement She is pregnant, such as 她有身孕,她身怀六甲,她有了,她肚子大了etc.2.3 Similarities in Pragmatic FunctionsEuphemism serves three basic pragmatic functions: evasive, upgrading and cosmetic. The evasive function of euphemism is to evade using taboo, enabling the speaker to talk about tabooed things freely. Lets take sex for example. The English-speaking people employ “hanker for”, “desire of the flesh” “have the hot”, while we Chinese use “渴慕”, “欲火中烧” ,“心旌摇荡” to replace“淫欲”(lust). When referring to “illicit love affairs”, in Chinese, we lave such terms as:“有外遇”,“私通”, “红杏出墙” to substitute “通奸”(adultery); In English, this kind of relation is euphemized as “criminal conversation”, “free love”, “to have an affair with someone”, “go astray”, etc. (Huang, 2006:26). The upgrading function of euphemism is to magnify and inflate some sensitive topics, making them sound comfortable and be acceptable. Lets take form of address for example. To show esteem and the traditional virtue of our nation, we Chinese use terms of respect and humility frequently in daily interaction. Thus in old and modern Chinese the honorific can be seen everywhere, like“大人”,“阁下”,“高见”,“贵府”,“久仰” in old Chinese，and “您贵姓”, “敬请指正” ,“请多指教”,etc. in modern Chinese. In English, when addressing superiors, people use “Your honor”，“Your Excellency”, “Your Majesty” or “His or her Excellency”.The cosmetic function operates as ways and means whereby governments and politicians beautify what is apparently defected. Here, we will mention cosmetic function in commercial areas. In English, people replace “second-hand book” with “pre-owned book”, “cold cream” with “skin tonic”, etc. In Chinese, a lot of advertising euphemisms appear such as the dish name:“绝代双椒”-青辣椒红辣椒 (blue and red pimiento); “母子相会”-黄豆炒黄豆芽(stir-fried soybean sprout with soybean).Whats more,“厨具”is used for“炊具”(kitchen utensil); “塑身或美体” for “减肥”(be on a diet).2.4 Similarities in Aesthetic ConsciousnessThere is a basic principle for human beings getting along with each other: people are supposed to keep appropriate distance in communication. This principle reflects the psychical distance which is prop