Session 2 The Linguistics of SLA(2).doc

Session 2 The Linguistics of Second Language Acquisition7. Functional approachesn Bearing on the Prague School of linguistics, sharing the following characteristics (S-T,p.53):1) Focus is on the use of language in real situations (performance) as well as underlying knowledge (competence). No sharp distinction is made between the two.2) Study of SLA begins with the assumption that the purpose of language is communication, and that development of linguistic knowledge (in L1 and L2) requires communicative use.3) Scope of concern goes beyond the sentence to include discourse structure and how language is used in interaction, and to include aspects of communication beyond language.7.1 Systemic linguistics (Halliday)n Language structures cannot be studied without taking into account of the situational context of their use. Language learners are not learning a system of rules which govern language structure, but rather meaning potential, i.e. what the speaker/hearer can (what he can mean, if you like), not what he knows. The process of acquisition consists of mastering certain basic functions of language and developing a meaning potential for each.n Functions which L1 children develop: instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imagination, representational (p.54).n Saville-Troike et al (1984): Second language acquisition is largely a matter of learning new linguistic forms to fulfill the same functions (as already acquired and used in L1) within a different social milieu. Do you agree? (cf. classroom drilling of L2 forms without being informed of relevant functions)7.2 Functional typologyn The worlds languages are classified into types based on the comparative study of their similarities and differences with respect to the linguistic features in a category. A language feature is unmarked if it occurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, or less complex structurally or conceptually, or more normal or more expected. (Which pronoun is more marked? she or he? Why?). n Markedness Differential Hypothesis (Eckman 1977) predicts transfer selectively: unmarked features in L1 are more likely to transfer. Unmarked elements are easier to be acquired than marked ones in L2. (McLaughlin: Eckmans work suggests that transfer is not always a bidirectional process, as might be inferred from a strict contrasting analysis approach.)n Functional Typology resembles CA in predicting and explaining transfer from L1 to L2 through comparison between the two, but it goes beyond the sureface-level structural contrasts of CA to more abstract patterns, prinicples, and constraints. (Do you agree? If lanmguage use functions are taken into account, what would happen to the predictions?) 7.4 Function-to-form mappingn Acquisition of both L1 and L2 involves a process of grammaticalization in which a grammatical function (such as the expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word (such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker (such as the suffix ed). I play soccer Yesterday I play soccer I played soccer. n This principle of increasing reliance on grammatical forms and reducing reliance on context and lexical words to express functions such as time is followed in all langauges. (a universal? Do Chinese children follow this principle in L1 acquisition? Does L1 learning kick off with context? Jiu before le? See S-T, p. 57)n Language acquisition involves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions. Grammaticalization is driven by communicative needs and use and is related to the development of more efficient cognitve processing as part of language learning.n Tense and Aspectn Vendlers (1967) categorization of verbs:Achievements: occurring at a single moment (e.g., arrive, reach)Accomplishments: proceeding toward a terminus (e.g., come, draw a circle)Activities: going on in time in homogeneous way (e.g., run, push)States: lasting for a period of time (e.g., know, love)n The Aspect Hypothesis: First and second language learners will initially be influenced by the inherent semantic aspect of verbs or predicates in the acquisition of tense and aspect markers associated with or affixed to these verbs (Andersen & Shirai 1994).n SLA research findings:1) Past/perfective morphology emerges with punctual verbs and verbs indicating achievements and accomplishments. The morphology then gradually extends to verbs expressing activities and states.2) Imperfective morphology emerges with durative and/or stative verbs (i.e., activities and states), then gradually spreads to achievement/accomplishment and punctual verbs.3) Progressive morphology is strongly associated with durative and dynamic verbs (i.e., activities).7.3 Information organizationn This approach focuses on the way in which learners put their words together (Klein and Perdue 1993:3), or the structure of interlanguage (known as learner varieties) with a view to discovering its organizational principles.n K & Ps European Science Foundation (ESF) project. n Objective: to study learner varietiesn Participants: adult immigrants in Europe speaking 6 L1s, using the L2 to communicate with no formal instruction in that language. Different L1s and L2s allow generalizations about the nature of interlanguage (see Table 3.4 for part of the research design).n Data collection: regularly recording the L2 production of the speakers learning 5 different L2s.n Duration of time: 3 years.n Materials: narratives told by the learners in English L2 about a Charlie Chaplin filmn Findings: (1) At developmental levels, all learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their IL. The sequence of structural development shows crosslinguistic influence for the NUO and IUO. 1) Nominal Utterance Organization (NUO): The learners generally begin with the seemingly unconnected naming of subjects and objects. 2) Infinite Utterance Organization (IUO): The learners increasingly add verbs to their utterances, but they seldom use grammatical morphemes to convey the meaning of tense, person, or number. At this stage, learners have constructed an interlanguage grammar called the basic variety. 3) Finite Utterance Organization (FUO): The learners who continue interlanguage development beyond the IUO level next add grammatical morphemes to the verb.More L1 transfer occurs as learners increase their L2 resources and produce more complicated utterances. (Why do you think this is the case? Do you agree with this observation?)（Do Actvities No.7）(2) The learners use a limited set of principles to organize information and follow essentially the same principles in organizing their utterances. These principles include: 1) Phrasal constraints. E.g. Once the verb has emerged, a basic pattern is noun phrase plus verb.2) Semantic constraints. When an utterance has more than one NP, the learners use such semantic factors to decide which one should come first (e.g. put the agent first).3) Pragmatic constraints. Putting what is known first and new information last. n Explanations for the sequence of acquisition and why some L2 learners are more successful than others:1) Communicative needs. Discourse tasks push the organization of utterances.2) Crosslinguistic influences. Affecting rate, not order of acquisition. 3) Extrinsic factors. Progress beyond the basic variety depends on propensity factors such as attitudes and motivation, and on environmental factors such as learners exposure to L2.4) Limits on processing. Learners current internalized interlanguage system must be ready to integrate new linguistic features.n Conclusions: Learners are creative, drawing on some of the material from the input and uses it to construct his or her own language.n7.5 Usage-based Approach