试论英语听力中的学习策略.doc

A Tentative Study of Learning Strategies for English Listening ComprehensionTian YujuanUnder the Supervision of Lv YingSchool of Foreign LanguageHexi UniversityApril 2011 ContentsAbstract(English)iAbstract(Chinese)ii1. Introduction12. Learning Strategies12.1 Definitions of learning strategies22.2 Categories of Learning Strategies42.3Goodlanguage learnerslearning strategies52.4 Factors ThatAffect theUse ofLearning Strategies62.5 Teachers Role in Learning Strategy Cultivation63. Listening Comprehension in Learning73.1 The Significance of Listening Comprehension in Communication73.2 The Important Role of English Listening Comprehension in English learning94. Learning Strategies for Listening Comprehension104.1 English Listening Comprehension Strategies and Learning Strategies114.2 The Definition and Classification of English Listening Comprehension Strategies114.3 Training Students in the Use of Learning Strategies of Listening Comprehension125. Conclusion16References17Acknowledgements19Abstract Listening is considered to be one of the most difficult skills in English learning. As one of the receptive skills, listening is the foundation to develop other language skills. For a long period of time, the teaching of English in China has mainly focused on the teaching of reading and writing in the early stage of learning and neglected the teaching of listening and speaking. Many teachers are puzzled at the situation in the English class: though many students can get a good mark in English test, not all of them can perform well in listening and speaking. They reflect on what was wrong with the teaching and try to find out the solutions to these problems. And it is obvious that the learners do not have enough and effective listening and speaking practice in a scientific way. This thesis will focus on listening and mainly discusses how to develop the listening strategies to improve the ability of listening comprehension.This paper will review the main findings in this research: the definitions of “learning strategy”, its classification and studies on the learning behaviors of “good language learners”. Then, it will analyze the characteristics of the listening and the elements affecting the English listening and finally try to raise a series of training models to develop learners self-study skills of listening.Keywords：learner; learning strategies; listening comprehension; strategy training摘要在英语学习中,听力是最难掌握的语言技能之一。听力理解作为一项输入性技能,是学习者发展其他语言技能的基础。长期以来,中国的英语教学过于强调读和写的技能训练,忽略听和说的能力的培养,尤其是在初级学习阶段。所以,许多英语教师会碰到这样的现象,不少学生英语考试得高分,但听说能力却跟不上。教师们从反省自己的教学过程出发,试图找到解决问题的方案。结果发现,许多学生之所以听说能力差,是因为在学习过程中,没有进行足够的听说训练,而且缺乏科学的策略指导。本文即以英语听力理解为论题,在前人研究的基础上,结合教学中的实际情况,讨论如何对学生进行策略训练,提高听力技巧技能。本文首先将回顾学习策略研究的成果，包括学习策略的定义，分类以及对优秀语言学习者行为的研究，然后分析听力的特征以及影响听力的因素，最后依据学习策略的理论提出一系列听力策略以帮助学习者提高听力技能和自学能力。关键词：学习者；学习策略；听力理解；策略训练ii1. IntroductionListening comprehension is an indispensable part in English learningIt is always the weak segment in English Education. Since listening comprehension became the part of college entrance examination, it has drawn more attraction than before. Both the students and the English teachers begin to care about the way of improving the listening comprehension. Although listening has received more and more attention in the English language teaching, students still perform poorly in listening comprehension. The most direct cause may be that the method of traditional teaching in listening comprehension does not really help much in developing students listening proficiency. Over the past 20 years, the English strategy of Research results show that: In English teaching, particularly in the process of teaching English listening, focusing on student learning strategies training, emphasizing student-centered teaching method is the consensus reached by the teachers. McLaughlin (1983) believes that, like any other learning processes, language learning is also a cognitive process. In the process, students can consciously influence their own learning, and learning strategies that affect student learning is an important factor, because “the success of foreign language learners to master is largely invested in language comprehension and production strategy for the time, energy and attention ”(Brown, 2001: 60). Based on these studies, this article concludes that the primary task of listening comprehension is the training of learning strategy, which is also the fundamental guarantee for the success of classroom teaching. Therefore, learning about the strategies for listening comprehension is necessary. 2. Learning StrategiesResearch into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Aaron Carton made the first attempt on learner strategies in his book The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study in 1966. Since the 1970s western linguists have shifted their research interest in EFL from teachers teaching to students perspective, paying more attention to the study of individual differences. In 1975, Rubin explored strategies concerning the learner psychological characteristics, learner communication strategies, learner social strategies and learner cognitive strategies. In the same year, Rubin published her study on learning strategies of good language learners, which includes: actively guessing meaning, having strong desire for communication, willing to make errors, continuing practice, controlling speech and focusing on meaning. Research conducted by Naiman et al. (1978) focused on personality traits, cognitive styles and strategies that were critical to successful language learning. The two great books published in the 1990s一Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition by OMalley and Chamot and Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know by Oxford一have reflected the great achievement in strategy studies of the 80s. In all, most researchers believe that learning strategies play an active role in language learning and the use of language learning strategies is related to improved language achievement and proficiency.2.1 Definitions of Learning Strategies As to the definition of learning strategies different researchers define them from different perspectives. The concept of learning strategies is a somewhat fuzzy one and not easy to tie down. The following table provides a sample of definitions of language learning strategies taken from recent literature.Source TimeDefinitionStern1983“In our view, strategy is best reserved for generaltendencies or overall characteristics of the approachemployed by the language learner，leaving techniquesas the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.”Weinstein and Mayer1986“Learning strategies are the behaviors and the thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process.”Chamot1987“Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information.” Rubin1987“Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learner directly.” Oxford1989“Language learning strategies are behaviors or actions which language learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.”Table1: Definitions of LLS Source: Rod Ellis(1999:531)According to Ellis, these definitions reveal a number of problems. First, it is not clear whether they are to be perceived of as behavioral or as mental, or as both. Oxford (1989) appears to see them as essentially behavioral, whereas Chamot (1987) sees them as both behavioral and mental. Second, there is considerable uncertainty concerning the precise nature of the behaviors that are to count as learning strategies. Stern (1983) distinguishes between “strategies” and “techniques”. The former are defined as general and more or less deliberate approaches to learning, whereas the latter constitute observable forms of language learning behavior evident in particular areas of language learning such as grammar. Other researchers, however, have used the term “strategy” to refer to the kind of behaviors Stern calls techniques. The third problem is whether learning strategies are to be seen as conscious or as subconscious. Many of the definitions avoid addressing this issue, but Chamot (1987) refers to them as “deliberate actions”. The fourth problem is whether learning strategies are seen as having a direct or an indirect effect on interlingua development. Rubin (1987) asserts that the effect is a direct one. But other researchers consider it to be more indirect一strategy use provides learners with data, upon which the “deep” subconscious processes can work. At last, there are differences in opinions about what motivates the use of learning strategies. Stern (1983), Chamot(1987), Rubin (1987) and Oxford (1989) recognize that they are used in an effort to learn something about the L2, but Oxford (1989) also suggests that their use can have an affective purpose (i.e. to increase enjoyment).It is really difficult for us to come up with a commonly-accepted version of learning strategies. However, the following summary by Wenden (1987) is more representative (Wenden uses “learner strategies” instead of “learning strategies”). Firstly, learner strategies are behaviors learners engage in to learn a second language or to regulate the learning of the language. Secondly, learner strategies include learners knowledge of their own strategy use. In other words, learner strategies contain metacognitive functions. Finally, learner strategies are learners awareness of language learning itself, such as the principles that should be followed and the difficult points there exist in language learning.2.2 Categories of Learning StrategiesJust as there have various definitions of language learning strategies, there also have various categories of them. Much of the early research (Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1983) concentrates on the compiling inventory of learning strategies that are used by language learners. Later research (Oxford, 1989; OMalley and Chamot, 1989) provides systematic classifications of learning strategies from different perspectives. The following categories of several prominent researchers such as Rubin, Oxford and OMalley and Chamot are quite popular in present studies.Rubin distinguishes between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to him, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute either directly or indirectly to language learning: learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies.Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect. Direct strategies consist of strategies that directly involve the target language in the sense that they require mental processing of the language(1989, p.37), while indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning through focusing, planning, evaluating, seeking opportunities, controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and empathy and other means(1989, p.151). Direct strategies are further subdivided into three groups: memory strategies that are used for storage of information; cognitive strategies or mental strategies used by learners to make sense of their learning; and compensation strategies for helping learners to overcome knowledge gaps to continue the communication. Indirect strategies also consist of three groups: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. Metacognitive strategies help learners to regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned with the learners emotional requirements such as confidence, while social strategies lead to increased interaction with the target language.OMalley and Chamots classifications of language learning strategies are widely-accepted by many language researchers. In accordance with the information-processing model, OMalley and Chamot divide language learning strategies into three main subcategories: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, social /affective strategies. “metacognitive” is a term to express executive function. According to OMalley and Chamot, metacognitive strategies involve knowing about learning and controlling learning through planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activities. Cognitive Strategies involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. The most important cognitive strategies are repetition, resourcing, directed physical response, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among. Social/Affective Strategies concern the ways in which learners interact with other learners and native speakers and serve to offer more opportunities for learners to be exposed to the target language. 2.3GoodLanguage LearnersLearning Strategies In the twentieth century, researchers tried to explore the good language learners whole picture and then use them to the poor learners, such as Rubin (1975), Stern (1975) and so on.Stern (1975) believes that the good learners mainly use the following ten strategies: planning strategy, activestrategy, empathystrategy, formstrategy, experimentalstrategy,semantic strategy,practical strategy, communication strategy, monitoring strategy and internalization strategy. Rubin (1975) put forward six good learners learning strategies: willing and able to express meaning, willing to communicate with second language, not afraid to make mistakes, paying attention to patterns and meanings, taking advantages of all possible practicing opportunities, monitoring their own and other peoples utterances. Naiman, Froehlich, Stern & Tedesco (1978) added on this basis that the good language learners use theL2 (Second Language) to think andunderstand their ownemotionalneeds of language learning. All the learners use learning strategies, while the good learners use the right strategies in right occasions. Good learners select learning strategies that coordinate with each other according to the requirement of learning tasks. Rubin (1975) considered that the characteristics of the good learners are that they are always ready to guess and express their own ideas, willing to look stupid and eager to seize all possible opportunities. 2.4 Factors ThatAffect theUse ofLearning StrategiesThere are any factors that affect theuse of learning strategies: learning motivation, learning attitude, learning methods, learning conditions, the language that has been acquired before, learning period, degree of strategy awareness, learninglevels;languageteaching methods; requirement of learningtasks (Dai Weidong,Song Dingfang1994); the teaching environment (includingattitudesof teachers, English proficiency andteaching methods,Wen Qiufang1995); intelligence;language competence, professionalorientation; nationality; age;sex;character; type andpersonality;professional background and so on. 2.5 Teachers Role in Learning Strategy CultivationThere is an undeniable fact that teachersare thefacilitatorsof students learning, they must offer appropriate instructions and guidance to help students to learn more independently and be responsible for their own learning. Then, what should teachers do to promote students learning in learning strategy training? 2.5.1 Holding Lectures Teachers can hold some lectures to form students awareness of using learning strategies.Here are some detailed practices:a. The school set up the rule that thelecture-based learningstrategy trainingshould be a part of the curriculum of language learning.b. Learnersmust participate ina number ofseminars on language learning strategies.c. Learnersmust reada certain amount ofarticleson language learning strategies.d. Learnersmust fill in diagnostic table for languagelearning strategies;e. In the classroom, learnersshould discuss their languagelearningstrategies usage.f. During the language learning process, learners should try to write their own simple reports.2.5.2 Teaching Learning Strategies In the classroom, Teachers canteach studentssome practicalstrategies, and provide themthe opportunity totest these strategies, thusenhancing theirawareness of the importanceof learning strategies. 2.5.3 Organizing Activities Teachersshould also organize someactivities ordiscussions on the effectiveusage of learning strategies. Students comments on their own efficiencies of using the learning strategies are quite critical. 3. Listening Comprehension in LearningListening comprehension (LC) has been recognized not as a passive receptive skill but as an active complex cognitive process. Bing a purposeful form of communication, it is the acceptance and understanding of verbal information. Through listening, students could obtain a large amount of linguistic material, thus deepen the understanding of the language being learned. In carrying outthe training oflistening and speaking skills, teachers shouldfind ways to helpstudents cultivating the habit of keeping thinking, tracking, predicting and judging in the process of listening, thus finally achieving the goal of being able to understand the material as soon as they hear it. 3.1 The Significance of Listening Comprehension in CommunicationL2 Listening comprehension is usually considered as the understanding of the spoken form of second language. Its importance in communicati