建筑设计与景观界面e Word 文档.docx

Design architecture and landscape interfaceAbstract: As borders between buildings and their natural surroundings become more permeable, experts see green surfaces and related features as functional components of building systems, with evolving standards, clearer metrics, and definable benefits.Nature has been prototyping designs far longer than humans have. And as architects strive to keep up with the rapidly evolving world of green-building standards, some of them are looking to exploit that experience by bridging the gap between nature and the built environment. The end goal: creating a functional interface between the two that improves building performance.Key word: Design architecture, natural surroundings, Systematizing Interface Standards In the second half of the 20th century, buildings and landscape became disconnected. Many architects saw nature as an unruly force to be excluded at all costs. Nonetheless, a small but vocal group maintained interest in the interplay of the built and natural environments. And today, architects increasingly see biomimetic and biophilic approaches as practical strategies. Contemporary systems that exemplify this interplay include green and blue roofs, green faades, living green walls, porous pavements, and associated systems for managing water and soil. But putting these green machines to work isnt plug-and-play; it calls for patient cost-benefit assessment. Well-deployed natural features can improve water management and thermal control and reduce operating costs, but they are not a panacea. “We have to break it down three ways,” says Signe Nielsen, a principal at the New York landscape architecture firm Mathews Nielsen. “Weve got the up-front capital costs, the long-term maintenance cost, and then the long-term benefit to society.” In communications with clients, she recommends, “you ought to be prepared for developing an opinion on all three and backing it up with facts and dollars.” Specific metrics exist for irrigation, stormwater control, energy modeling, and benefits produced by trees, among others. Architects, Nielsen notes, can employ resources such as the National Tree Benefit Calculator, which takes location, species, tree size, and nearby land-use categories as inputs, and returns estimates of cost savings for stormwater control, electricity and natural-gas savings, air quality, property value, and carbon reduction as outputs. Related instruments exist for irrigation calculations in certain regions, but shading, thermal, and cost data require site-specific calculations. These measurements can also be a reality check. Nielsen recalls writing a manual for green roofs in New York and noting that a 4,000-square-foot green roof with 6-inch-tall foliage does wonders for stormwater retention, but, because oxygen production is a function of leaf mass, the roofs potential by that metric was equivalent to that of a single tree. “I remember trying to make my case to the city, and they said, You know, if we just planted four trees, it would cost us a tenth the cost of a green roof,” she says. And while the argument over including such features rarely rests on a single variable, it is important to know which will resonate with decision-makers.Systematizing Interface StandardsThe LEED system, says Frederick Steiner, Assoc. AIA, dean of the School of Architecture at the University of Texas at Austin, “did a pretty good job with buildings, but once you got outside the building envelope, there wasnt much there. Basically it was use native plantings; conserve water, both of which are worthwhile goals, but it doesnt go into very much depth.” New site-scale standards are evolving. The American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), the University of Texass Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, and the United States Botanic Garden have formed an interdisciplinary partnership, called the Sustainable Sites Initiative (known as SITES), with a complementary voluntary rating system for sustainable landscapes, with or without buildings. “The USGBC, a stakeholder in the initiative, anticipates incorporating the SITES guidelines and performance benchmarks into future iterations of the LEED Green Building Rating System,” reports Mark Simmons, director of the Wildflower Centers Ecosystem Design Group and a member of the SITES Technical Core Committee. SITES, Simmons colleague Steiner says, is organized around the idea of ecosystem services, the accounting of processes that nature provides gratis: clean water and air, oxygen, climatic mitigation, plant pollination. And there are other groups exploring these ideas as well. Jeffrey L. Bruce, the chair of Toronto-based Green Roofs for Healthy Citiesa group that increases awareness of the economic, social and environmental benefits of green roofs and green wallsalso recommends the Cascadia Green Building Councils Living Building Challenge, which is “projecting a standard that may take us decades to reach. Theyre looking at net-zero energy, net-zero carbon, net-zero water,” he reports. “Totally off the grid.”The trick is to determine which interfaces are appropriate. “Why do you want a green roof?” Simmons says. “What do you want your roof to do?” Beyond aesthetic appeal, choices involve thermal control, stormwater management, externality mitigation, and biodiversity. Extensive green roofs, with a light vegetative layer, differ from intensive roofs, with thicker soil, sturdier structures, and more ecological complexity. David R. Tilley, associate professor at the University of Marylands Department of Environmental Science and Technology, estimates that green roofs are “about five to eight years ahead of the greenwall industry in terms of market penetration, popularity, standards, and size.”“Designers should ask clients, Which of these do you want: just aesthetics, stormwater, biodiversity? ” Simmons says, then tailor designs to performance. “Then the onus is on the industry to say, OK, you live in Atlanta, youre limited to 100 pounds per square foot, you want to absorb a half-inch of rainwater, and you want to attract butterflies. OK, those are the specifications; thank you, well go back and design it and give you a roof that can do that. Now, that implies a lot of accountability.”Light, Shade, and Energy Shade is vegetated surfaces primary service to the ecosystem. “Once you have a full canopy developed thats three to four years old, and its matured,” Tilley says, “youre looking at probably a 95 percent reduction in the solar load.” Canopy is measured according to leaf-area-index (LAI) relative to wall area; for each unit of LAI, sunlight decreases by about half. Effects on interior temperatures depend heavily on insulation: If walls already have a high R-value, even dramatic reductions in LAI will cut temperature only slightly, but at low R-values, a dense canopy reduces cooling costs appreciably. Replacing black asphalt with vegetation raises rooftop albedo, and evapotranspiration can add humidity to an urban atmosphere; both help mitigate heat-island effect. The converse benefitreducing heating loads with passive solar energy through the use of green faade systemscalls for deciduous species, which lose their leaves and thus allow light to penetrate into the building during winter. Native plants known to thrive under local conditions (climate zones, pest resistance, and soil compatibility, for instance) are preferable; consulting with local botanists is advisable. Every region has its success stories and its problem children with regard to the plant varieties installed in a project. Maryland-based Tilley warns against using English ivy (Hedera helix), which adheres tenaciously and is aggressive enough to move beyond its support structure and enter a building through windows. Nielsen, based in New York, identifies wisteria as another potential monster: attractive and fragrant, but capable of growing 70 feet tall and forming a woody trunk powerful enough to crush metal and tear roof leaders off a building. In French botanist Patrick Blancs vertical gardens, mesh-supported systems of felt, pipes, and valves deliver hydroponic nutrients to roots by capillary action. Maintenance is considerable: soil dries out faster in containers than at grade. “Those are art pieces, effectively,” says Denise Hoffman Brandt, landscape architecture program director at the Bernard and Anne Spitzer School of Architecture, City College of New York (CCNY). “Theyre extraordinarily expensive to install and maintain. A modular, low-maintenance greenwall system hasnt hit the market yet.” The alternativegreen faade systems or lightweight trellises on or near a buildings exterior, with plants rooted in ground-level soiloffers thermal and other benefits with lower operating costs and fewer structural complications. These systems can also be deployed to integrate plantings when “youre dealing with not as much available plan space to incorporate gardens or large specimen trees,” or when retrofitting an existing project, says James Sable, vice president of Los Angelesbased Greenscreen. On the whole, green faades are more reliable on lower stories or on roofs than on a full skyscraping scale: With a few exceptions in tropical climates (such as towers in Southeast Asia by Malaysian architect Kenneth Yeang, Hon. FAIA), wind loads can make vertical green structures above four or five stories problematic.译文：建筑设计和景观界面摘要：随着建筑和自然环境之间的边界日益渗透，与之相连的标准不断发展，指标愈加明晰，效益更易定义，专家把绿色外观及其相关特征看作了建筑系统的功能构成部分。在人类进行原型设计之前，大自然很早就这样做了。当建筑师们努力跟上以绿色建筑标准构建的日新月异的世界时，他们中的一些人正努力缩小大自然和建筑环境之间差距。终极目标就是：创造一个连接自然和建筑的功能交界面提升建筑性能。关键词：建筑设计，景观界面，界面标准系统化20世纪下半叶，建筑脱离了景观。很多建筑师把自然看作一种难以驾驭的力量，千方百计地把它摒除掉。但一个规模弱小却声音响亮的群体保持着对建筑和自然环境相互影响的兴趣。时至今日，建筑师越来越把仿生和亲生方法当作实用性策略。例证这类相互影响的当代系统包括绿色和蓝色屋顶，绿色正面，逼真的绿墙，透水的路面及搭配水和土壤的相关系统。但这些绿色机器投入到实际工作中却不是即插即用的；它需要耐心的成本效益评估。精心部署的自然特征能提高水管理和热控制并降低操作成本，但它们并不是包治百病的万能药。“我们要用三种方式对其进行分解，”纽约建筑景观公司Mathews Nielsen的一位负责人Signe Nielsen说，“我们已经有了预付的资本费用，长期的维护费用及接下来的长期社会福利。”在和客户的交流中她建议说，“你在准备采纳一种观点时应该顾全这三方面并用事实和美元支持下去。”在其他方面，灌溉、雨水控制、能量模型和树木带来的利益都有具体指标。Nielsen解释说建筑师可以利用多种资源，如国家树木效益计算器，输入位置、种类、树木大小及附近土地利用类别，然后输出雨水控制、电力和天然气储存、空气质量、属性值及减碳的预估成本节余。某些地区还有用于灌溉计算的相关仪表，而阴凉、热量和成本数据需要因地制宜进行计算。这些测量也可用作现状核实。Nielsen忆起曾给纽约一些建筑写过一本绿色屋顶手册，注解说一个带6英寸高树叶的4000平方英尺的绿色屋顶创造了雨水保留的奇迹。然而，由于氧气制造只有大量树叶才做得到，根据这一标准屋顶的制氧潜力只相当于一颗树。“我记得当时试着把自己的想法推向这个城市，他们回答说，你知道的，我们种四棵树的成本只需建造一个绿色屋顶的十分之一，”她说。在争论这类特征很少取决于一个单一变量时，重要的是找到哪一点能与决策制定者产生共鸣。界面标准系统化奥斯汀的德克萨斯大学建筑学院的院长、美国建筑师联合协会成员Frederick Steiner说，LEED体系“在建筑上做得很好，然而一旦你走出建筑围护范围，就显得差强人意了。根本上来说，它就是使用当地植物；节约用水，两者都是值得追求的目标，但考虑的深度都不够。”新景观-衡量标准正在发展演变中。美国景色美化设计师协会(ASLA)、德克萨斯大学的伯德约翰逊野花中心和美国植物园组成了一个跨学科的合作关系，命名为“可持续景观行动”（简称SITES），是带或者不带建筑的可持续景观美化的一个互补自愿评级系统。注：（LEED是美国民间绿色建筑认证奖项，由非盈利组织美国绿色建筑协会（USGBC）于2003年开始运作，目前在世界各国的各类建筑环保评估、绿色建筑评估以及建筑可持续性评估标准中被认为是最完善、最有影响力的评估标准。LEED成功的商业运作和市场定位得到了世界范围内的认可和追随，如今它已经成为全球默认的主流绿色建筑评级体系，得到全球不同气候带国家的认可。）“此次行动中一个举足轻重的机构USGBC（美国绿色建筑委员会）期望把SITES的指导方针和执行基准并入LEED绿色建筑评级系统未来更新的版本中，”MarkSimmons报告说，他是野花中心生态设计组的董事，也是SITES技术核心委员会的成员之一。Simmons的同事Steiner说，SITES是围绕着生态系统服务这一理念组织起来的，记录大自然无私奉献的过程：清洁的水和空气，氧气，气候调节，植物授粉。还有其他的一些团队开发着这些概念。Jeffrey L. Bruce，本部位于多伦多的“健康城市绿色屋顶”一个致力于提高人们对绿色屋顶和墙体的经济、社会和环境效益意识的团体的主席也推荐卡斯卡迪亚绿色建筑委员会的商住楼挑战。他说商住楼挑战“设计了一个我们需要几十年才能达到的标准。他们追求净零能源，净零碳，净零水。”完全脱离了这个圈子。窍门是确定哪种界面恰当。“你为什么想要一个绿色屋顶？”Simmons说。“你想要你的屋顶做什么？”排除美观，人们的选择很多，包括热控制、雨水管理、外观缓和和生物多样性。有一个吸光植物层的