PSYCHOLOGY.doc

Reading Report: PsychologyPSYCHOLOGYZebing Chang(Education College, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 20050500688)Part One Theory ModelsTheorythe history of psychology1. Where did psychology come from?Psychology developed from three main areas of study:Philosophy many of the problems which psychology has investigated were first most clearly outlined by Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in the 5th century BC .Two more recent philosophical influences on the development of psychology as a science were:empiricism which argued that humans should only measure data that is objectively observable, such as behavior and positivism which argued that the methods and principles of science should be applied to human behavior.Biology has had two important influences : evolutionDarwins suggestion that humans have evolved from other animals .The discoveries in genetics that followed from his evolutionary theory have had many important implications for the study and understanding of behavior .Physiologythe discoveries, mostly by the medical profession, of the structure and function of the brain, nervous, and endocrine systems have significantly contributed to the understanding of behavior.Physics a subject that because of its great success has been adopted as the ideal model by scientists in psychology ,who have borrowed its scientific methods and principles .Physicists ,such as Fechner ,started applying their subject to human behavior and experience (psychophysics) in the nineteenth century ,with some success .2. When did psychology start?The date 1879 is usually said to be the start of psychology as a separate scientific discipline ,since it was when Wilhelm Wundt created the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig .Wundt is ,therefore ,regarded as the founding father of psychology ,although Americans tend to suggest that William James should have this honor since his 1890 book (which took 12 years to write) entitled principles of psychology was a major landmark in psychologys literature and he began teaching a course on the relationship between physiology and psychology at Harvard University in 1875 .3. How did psychology develop?Structuralism was the first approach to investigating psychology ,pioneered by Wundt himself, who thought that the object of psychological investigation should be the conscious mind ,and that it should be studied by introspection (looking inwards at ones own mental experience) in order to break it down into its component parts (such as images ,sensations and feelings) like the science of chemistry had done with chemicals .One structuralist ,Tichener ,claimed there were a total of 46,708 human mind ,but the approach was very limited in its ability to explain and was replaced by functionalism .Functionalism the approach William James advocated .James was influenced by Darwins views and argued that the workings of the mind are functional ,to survive and adapt ,so we should investigate what behavior and thoughts are for .Many of Jamess insights remain valid very powerful approaches that both started around the turn of the century .Psychoanalysis was in fact a method of therapy developed by Sigmund Freud in Austria, but in many major books, such as The interpretation of dreams (1900), Freud began describing in detail an underlying theory of the human mind and behavior that has had an enormous (and controversial) impact on psychology .Freud argued that the proper object of psychological investigation should be the unconscious mind, and that our behavior is determined by processes of which we are not aware.Behaviorism behaviorists ,such as John Watson ,were extremely critical of all the approaches that concerned themselves with mind ,and proposed that psychology should only investigate observable behavior if it wanted to be an objective science .This approach dominated experimental psychology until the 1950s ,when a strong resurgence of interest in the mind developed in the form of the cognitive and the humanistic approaches ,which suggested that behaviorism ignored all the most important and interesting things that go on in our heads .Cognitive psychology aims to investigate the mind by using computer information processing ideas to arrive at testable models of how the brain works, and then applying scientific methods to confirm these models .The cognitive approach has enjoyed much success and is a very dominant one in psychology today.Modelthe organization of psychology Basic mechanism Psychological style Physi- mechanismPsych- mechanismSocio-mechanismNormal psychologyWidespreadProcessCognition *Thinking*Behavior*PersonalityTemperament*Ability*Character*DevelopmentPrenatal（ConceptionBirth）*Infancy（Birth3 years）*ChildhoodEarly（3 years6 years）*Middle（6 years11 years）*Adolescence（11 years20 years）*AdulthoodYoung（20 years40 years）*Middle（40 years65 years）*Oldiehood（65 yearsOver）*Abnormal psychologyWidespreadSpirit Obstacle & Behavior Obstacle*Sex Obstacle*DevelopmentChildhood & Adolescence Obstacle*Spirit Growth Obstacle*Part Two Research MethodsVariableswhat do psychologists investigate?A variable is any object ,quality or event that changes or varies in some way .Examples include :aggression ,intelligence ,time ,height ,amount of alcohol ,driving ability ,attraction etc .Many of the variables that psychologists are interested in are abstract concepts ,such as aggression or intelligence .Operationalization refers to the process of making variables physically measurable or testable. This is done in psychology by recording some aspect of observable behavior that is assumed to be indicative of the variable under consideration.Observations, case studies, surveys, etc In these methods variables are precisely measured in varying amount of detail.Correlations Variables are measured and compared to see how they covary with each other (what relationship they have together).Experiments One variable (the independent variable) is altered to see what effect it has on another variable (the dependent variable) .The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in two or more conditions to see what effect it has on the dependent variable .The dependent variable is the main measured outcome of the experiment ,hopefully due to the manipulation of the independent variable .However ,the extraneous variables (other variables that could potentially influence the dependent variable apart from the independent variable) ,could spoil the experiment and so controls are employed to prevent extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables (those that actually affect the dependent variable strongly enough to distort the effort of the independent variable) .Extraneous variables can be either random (unsystematic variables that can affect the dependent variable but should not affect one condition more than another) or constant (those that have a systematic effect on one condition more than another) .While random errors will reduce the accuracy of the results ,only constant errors usually truly confound the experimental results .Hypotheseshow do psychologists make their predictions?Hypotheses are precise, testable statements. They should be bold (2-tailed hypotheses simply predict an effect ,such as a difference or correlation .And 1-tailed hypotheses predict a particular direction in the effect ,e.g. that one condition will do better than another ,or that a positive correlation will occur .) ,precise (Precise hypotheses should contain fully operationalized variables and the words statistically significant if inferential statistics are to be conducted on the results .) and refutable (To be scientific every hypothesis should be capable of being shown to be wrong .For this reason a null hypothesis is proposed that states that there will be no significant effect ,either difference or correlation .Sometimes ,researchers wish to study .) .Correlational hypotheses Predict significant patterns of relationship between two or more variables.Experimental hypotheses Predict significant differences in the dependent variable between the various conditions of the independent variable.Methodshow do psychologists investigate their hypotheses?The methods can be divided into two conditions:Experimental methods An experiment involves the manipulation of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable ,while attempting to control the influence of all other extraneous variables .Laboratoryin the laboratory the researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable while maintaining strict control over extraneous variables through standardized procedures .Fieldthe researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable ,but does so in the subjects own natural environment .Natural/Quasithe independent variable is changed by natural occurrence ;the researcher just records the effect on the dependent variable .Quasi experiments are any where control is lacking over the IV .Non-experimental methods was typed into three kinds :Observationsobservations involve the precise measurement of naturally occurring behavior in an objective way .Naturalistic observations involve the recording of spontaneously occurring behavior in the subjects own natural environment .Controlled observations involve the recording of spontaneously occurring behavior ,but under conditions contrived by the researcher .Participant observations involve the researcher becoming involved in the everyday life of the subjects ,either with or without their knowledge .Questioningthere are many techniques for gathering self report data ,which can be employed in varying detail from the superficial survey of many people to the in-depth assessment of individuals .Interviews involve direct verbal questioning of the subject by the researcher ,but differ in how structured the questions are :structured interviews ,semi-structured interviews ,clinical interviews and unstructured interviews .Opinion surveys can be closed or open-ended and should be precise ,understandable and easy to answer .Psychological tests need to be standardized for a population and tested to show reliability ,validity and discriminatory power .Case studyan idiographic method involving the long term and detailed study of an individual or particular group .The case study method is often applied to unusual or valuable examples of behavior which may provide important insights into psychological function or refutation of psychological theory .Samplinghow do psychologists select their subjects?Sampling is the process of selecting subjects to study from the target population (a specified section of humankind) .Since the results of the study on the sample will be generalized back to the target population (through inference) ,samples should be as representative (typical) of the target population as possible .Samples should be of a sufficient size (e.g. 30) to represent the variety of individuals in a target population ,but not so large as to make the study uneconomical in terms of time and resources .Random truly random sampling only occurs when every member of a target population has an equal chance of being selected .For example: putting the names of every member of the target population into a hat and pulling a sample out (without looking!).Stratified involves dividing the target population into important subcategories (or strata) and then selecting members of these subcategories in the proportion that they occur in the target population .For example :if a target population consisted of 75% women and 25% men ,a sample of 20 should include 15 women and 5 men .Opportunity sampling simply involves selecting those subjects that are around and available at the time .An effort may be made to not be biased in selecting particular types of subject .For example: university psychologists may sample from their students. Self-selecting samples consist of those individuals who have consciously or unconsciously determined their own involvement in a study .For example: volunteers for studies or passers by who become involved in field studies, i.e. in bystander intervention studies.Designhow do psychologists use their subjects in experiments?An experiment uses the subjects like:Repeated measures involve using the same subjects in each condition of an experiment, e.g. giving a group of subjects a driving test with no alcohol, followed at a later time by the same test after a pint of lager.Independent measures involve using different subjects in each condition of the experiment, e.g. giving one group of subjects a driving test with no alcohol, and a different group of subjects the same test after a pint of lager.Matched pairs involve using different but similar subjects in each condition of an experiment .An effort is made to match the subjects in each condition in any important characteristics that might affect performance, e.g. in driving ability, alcohol tolerance, etc.Controllinghow do psychologists control extraneous variables and bias in their studies?The extraneous variables and bias involve:Method artificiality laboratory environments and operationalized variables may lack ecological validity.Subjects individual differences subject variables can become a problem especially in an independent measures design, creating random or even constant confounding effects.Design problems involve :Order effectswhere learning ,boredom or fatigue can influence the second condition of an experiment using a repeated measures design .Demand characteristicsworking out the aim of the study and behaving differently (e.g. trying to please the researcher or spoil the study) .Experimenter expectancywhere the expectations of the researcher influence the results either by consciously or unconsciously revealing the desired outcome or through unconscious procedural or recording bias .Procedure distraction and confusion both sources of extraneous variables which could confound studies unless controlled for.Assessinghow do psychologists test the quality of studies?Psychologists test the quality of studies as follows:Reliability the reliability of a method of measurement (whether it be an experimental test ,questionnaire or observational procedure) refers to how consistently it measures .Internal reliability refers to how consistent a method measures within itself .If methods of measurement were not standardized ,they would give distorted final scores .Internal reliability could be checked for test items by the split half method correlating the result of half the items with the other half (e.g. the odd numbers with the even numbers of the test) and gaining a high positive correlation coefficient .External reliability refers to how consistent a method measures over time when repeated .Methods of measurement should give similar scores when repeated on the same people under similar conditions .External reliability could be checked for test items by the test-,re-test method correlating the results of the test conducted on one occasion with the results of the test conducted on a later occasion (with the same subjects) and gaining a high positive correlation coefficient .Validity the validity of a method of measurement (whether it be an experimental test ,questionnaire or observational procedure) refers to whether it measures what it is supposed to measure how realistically or truly variables have been operationalized .Face/Content validity involves examining the content of the test to see if it looks like it measures what it is supposed to measure .For example ,examining the test items of an intelligence test to see if they seem to measure general intelligence ,not just general knowledge or linguistic comprehension .Construct validity refers to whether the test or method can be used to support the underlying theoretical constructs concerning the variable that it is supposed to be measuring .For example ,if theory suggests the offspring of two highly intelligent parents raised in a stimulating environment should be intelligent ,an IQ test should confirm this .Concurrent validity involves comparing a new method or test with an already well established one that claims to measure the same variable(s) .A high positive correlation should be gained between the results of the two tests .For example ,correlating the results from the same people tested by a new intelligence test and an order established one .Predictive validity refers to whether the test will predict future performance indicated by its results. For example ,high scorers on an IQ test at a young age should be predicted to later perform better in studies or jobs requiring intelligence .Ecological validity refers to whether a test or method measures behavior that is representative of naturally occurring behavior .Too specifically operationalized tests may ignore many aspects of spontaneously occurring behavior .For example ,do the items on an intelligence test represent all the types of behavior we would describe as intelligent in everyday behavior .Analysishow do psychologists analyze their data?1. How do psychologists summarize their data numerically and pictorially?Numerical summaries refer to: Levels of data involve nominal data, ordinal data, interval data and ratio data .Measures of central tendency involve mean, median and mode .Measures of dispersion involve range, semi-interquartile range and standard deviation.Pictorial summaries refer to bar charts, pie charts,