语言学-discourse-analysis.ppt

Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis语篇分析 Majorcontents 1 Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2 Informationstructure3 Cohesionandcoherence4 Discoursemarkers5 Conversationalanalysis6 Criticalanalysis 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis DiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause Stubbs 1983 1 Textlinguistics discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis DiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics discoursestudies textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs conversations interviews etc p168 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis LanguageinusePragmatics meaningDiscourseanalysis informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument FunctionalSystemicGrammar 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis Fertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis Pickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden Ordinary unexcitingearth YetitisoneofNature smiracles andoneofhermostcomplexproducts Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition sotakethefirstboldstepingardening gettoknowyoursoil 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis AprimarytaskofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion 衔接 1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis TopicsofDA Informationstructure 信息结构 Cohesion 衔接 Coherence 连贯 Discoursemakers 话语标记语 Conversationalanalysis 会话分析 2InformationStructure Howdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse 2 1GivenandnewinformationAlice Whoatethebread Tom Maryatethebread Giveninformation knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation unknowntotheaddressee 2 1Givenandnewinformation Giveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak Hesaidhe dcallbacklater Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation e g meronymy 部分 整体关系 Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing 2 1Givenandnewinformation FormsofN Ginformation New informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated e g withafullnounphrase relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier s E g WhenIenteredtheroom therewasatallmanwithanold fashionedhaton quiteelegantlydressed 2 1Givenandnewinformation Giveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms pronouns unstressednounphrase omitted A Whoatetheapple B Marydid Mary 2 2Topicandcomment话题和述题 Topic话题 whattheutteranceisabout Comment述题 whatissaidaboutthetopic Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention Topicisusuallythesubject nounphrase Maryatethebread 2 2Topicandcomment Otherelementscantaketheroletoo Aftertea willyoutellmeastory MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish Abeautifuldressshedidmake Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext Oh look 2 2Topicandcomment Topic commentvs given newinformationGiven newinformation thepointofviewofthelistener Topic commentrelatestothatofthespeaker Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout 2 2Topicandcomment Giveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic Maryatethebread Asforherlittlesister shedranktheCoca Cola new topicPeterdidn tbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid AsforMary shebelievedeverythinghesaid given comment 2 2Topicandcomment Topic commentvs rheme themeRheme theme sentenceTopic comment discourseRheme theme concretesentencestructure linguisticform Topic comment abstractinformationstructureMike shousewassocomfortableandwarm Hereallydidn twanttoleave buthecouldn taffordtherent youknow Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback 2 2Topicandcomment TopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish Asforme I mgonnagotobed Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic Japanese Korean Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder 作业终于做完了 2 2Topicandcomment InEnglish markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject Shelooksathim 2 3Contrast对比 Contrast anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse contrastiveA DidTomseetheghost B No Johndid B Yes Tomsawtheghost 2 3Contrast对比 Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole Ofeveryonepresent onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone 2 3Contrast对比 Testforcontrast Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby ratherthan itiscontrastive A DidTomseetheghost B No John ratherthanTom sawtheghost B No Tomseetheangle ratherthantheghost 2 3Contrast对比 Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases A DidTomseeaghost B Yes Tomsawaghost butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter 2 3Contrast对比 Employee CanIleaveearlytoday Manager Idon tmind InEnglish contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress Youmaybesmart buthe sgood looking 3 CohesionandCoherence衔接 连贯 Howsentencesarecombinetoformtexts It spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuildtoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty Astandardthat ssetbyResearchMachines 3 CohesionandCoherence Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuilttoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty It spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology Astandardthat ssetbyResearchMachines 3 CohesionandCoherence 3 1Cohesion衔接Thegrammaticaland orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelements sentencesorsegments ofadiscourse Cohesivedevices衔接手段Acoherentdiscoursehascertainwordsandexpressionsinitwhichlinkthesentencestogether Reference substitution ellipsis conjunctionandlexicalcohesion 3 1Cohesion Acoherentdiscoursearesentenceslinkedclosely A IsJanehere B No sheisn t Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan tmakehimdrink Howsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscourse 3 1 1Reference参照 照应 Referencewords pronouns it they demonstratives this that thedefinitearticle the anditemslikesuchas e g Thereisahouseneartheriver ThatisJohn s Ididn tknowitwashis 3 1 1Reference参照 照应 Twotypesofreference endophora内参照 theinterpretivesourceliesintheco text exophora外参照 theinterpretivesourceliesinthecontext e g Maryisstandinghere Ilikeher Endophora 内参照 anaphora回指 thereferentliesinthepriortext e g Lookatthedog itisdancing cataphora后指 thereferentliesinthefollowingtext e g WhenImether Marylookedill Typesofreference anaphora回指endophoraReference内参照cataphora后指指称exophora外参照 3 1 2Substitution替代 Theprocessorresultofreplacingonewordbyanotherataparticularpositioninastructure A I velostmydictionary substituted B Getanewone substitute ThreetypesofsubstitutionNominalsubstitution toreplaceanounornounphrase Verbalsubstitution toreplaceaverbphrase Clausalsubstitution toreplaceaclause Referencevs Substitution Referenceisarelationonsemanticlevel Noun pronoun nounphraseJack himAgroupofstudents thosestudentsSubstitutionisarelationonthelexico grammaticallevel arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions andtheyhavesamefunction newwatch newone Referencevs Substitution Asrelationbetweenmeanings referencecanbeanaphoric cataphoricandexophoric Substitutionisarelationwithintext themajorityofsubstitutionarehighlydependingonthelinguisticcontext anditmainlyhappensinthelatertext 3 1 3Ellipsis省略 Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofeconomy emphasisorstyle andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse SubstitutionbyzeroDoyoulikeit No Idon t likeit Subtypes Nominal verbalandclausalellipsis 3 1 4Conjunction连词 Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction Iwasnotinvited Otherwise Iwouldhavebeenthere coordinator并列连词 and but subordinator从属连词 because when conjunctiveadverbs连接副词 however indeed Ifyoudogood goodwillbedonetoyou butifyoudoevil thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou Therefore let sdogood Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords i e thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems repetition重复Threetypes synonym同义词collocation上义词 3 1 5Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接 Repetition repeatthesamewords orgeneralnouns orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures Thedonkeydied thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife Superodinate thesameword synonymornear synonym superordinate generalwords collocation Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute Repetitionoflexicalitems Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem asynonymornear synonym asuperordinate orageneralword Thereisaboyplayingwithfire Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn ttakecare repetition Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn ttakecare synonym Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn ttakecare superordinate Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn ttakecare generalword Collocation搭配 thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco occur AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed 生气的 thefatmanofBombay 3 2Coherence连贯Interestinglyenough theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat makesense Considerthefollowingpassage e g IboughtaFord AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElysees 香榭丽舍大街 wasBlack BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek Aweekhassevendays EverydayIfeedmycat Catshavefourlegs Thecatisonthemat Mathasthreeletters 从前有座山 山上有座庙 庙里有个老和尚 老和尚在和小和尚讲故事 从前有座山 Coherence therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext Itconcernspeople sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir commonsense itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext Coherenceissthunderlyingthetext semanticconnections logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage 50 Student I velostmybunchofkeys Roommate It safinedaytoday Student Soyou vegotafreedinner p197 GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge Andheisnowalawyer GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge Heisnowalawyer Theabsenceoftheconjunctions and inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw Insummary therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible 7 4Discoursemarkers话语标记语 Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere discoursemarkers DM expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence conversationalparticles wellandohparentheticallexicalizedclauses y know Imeanandyousee connectiveelementsso afterall andmoreover Themainroleofdiscoursemarkers toguidespeaker sinterpretationsoftheutterances ThefeaturesofDMs DMsseemtoclarifyatext sstructuralrelationsforthereader Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures 7 5Conversationalanalysis Theanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylifeiscalledconversationalanalysis CA ThreemechanismsinCA adjacencypairs 相邻语对 preferencestructure 首选结构 presequences 前序列 Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor 7 5 1Adjacencypairs相邻语对 Certainturnshavespecificfollow upturns Questionstakeanswers Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals andsoon Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst 56 A Youleftthelighton B Itwasn tme thesequenceofcomplaint denialisanadjacencypair Adjacencypairshavefiveproperties Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances afirstpartandasecondpart Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes forexample questionandanswer orgreetingandgreeting Theformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart thesecondpartisrelevantandexpectableasthenextutterance Adjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion answergreeting greetinginvitation acceptance non acceptanceoffer acceptance non acceptancecomplaint apology denialsummons传唤 responseassertion assent赞成request acceptancepromise acknowledgementthanks acknowledgementgoodbye goodbye However notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts Itoftenhappensthataquestion answer Q A sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion answersequenceintervenes ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1 Q2 A2 A1 withthemiddlepair Q2 A2 beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入语列 57 Agent Doyouwanttheearlyflight Q1 Client Whattimedoesitarrive Q2 Agent Nineforty five A2 Client Yeah that sgreat A1 Aninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother Inprinciple thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon 58 A AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening Q1 B CanIbringafriendalong Q2 A Maleorfemale Q3 B Whatdoesthatmatter Q4 A Justamatterofbalance A4 B Male A3 A Okey A2 B I llbetherethen A1 Ex 1 Son CanIwatchTV Dad Father Haveyoufinishedyourhomework Son No Father Thenyoucan t Inthisexample thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists 2 A Couldyoulendmeafewbucks B Whatfor A IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend B Howmuchdoyouwant A Well uh 50dollarsisok B Whenareyougonnareturn A NextMonday B Allright Waitforme I llberightback 7 5 2Preferencestructure首选结构 Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts Forexample aquestioncanbefollowedbya aquestion b byapartialanswer c byastatementofignorance d byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore byadenialofitspresupposition 59 A WhatdoesJoedoforaliving B a Doyouneedtoknow b Oh thisandthat c I venoidea d What sthatgottodowithit e Hedoesn t Preferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual morenormalandlessspecific 60 A Haveyougotalight B Yes 61 A Haveyougotalight B No sorry Idon tsmoke B sreplyin 60 ispreferredanddispreferredin 61 7 5 3Presequences前序列 63 Jeff Mornin Stan Stan Hi How sitgoin Jeff Oh can tcomplain Iguess Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon Stan Well Idon thavemuchchoice Greetingsexemplifyopeningsequences utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation Theyconveythemessage Iwanttotalktoyou Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences Greetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile oraspresequencesforlong