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ChapterFour oneBargainingProcessFocusTacticsandstrategiesformakingquotationsIndicatorsfortheendofabargainTacticsandskillsformakingcounter quotationsPrinciplesandstrategiesformakingcompromises Case1 Time 2005Parts alargegroupofChinesepurchasersmajorAmericanCorporationsincludingBoeing MicrosoftandGMBackground In2005 inordertoreducethetradedeficit 赤字 betweentheUSandChina alargegroupofChinesepurchasersweredispatchedtonegotiatewithmajorAmericancorporationsincludingBoeing MicrosoftandGMfortheimportationofproductsworthover10billiondollars Pleasedtohearthenews BoeingwonderedhowmanyBoeingairlinersChinawouldpurchasesthistime ChineserepresentativesproposedthatthepurchaseofBoeingairlinersshouldincludethenewly developedBoeing787 Problem However therepresentativesfromBoeingsaidtherewouldbenoproblemaboutthepurchaseofBoeing737s 747s 767s and777s buttheBoeing787wasanewproductthathadnotyetrolledofftheline anditwouldbesoldatanextremelyhighprice TheChineserepresentativesrespondedthattheremustbeapricenomatterhowhighitwas sohowmuchwasaBoeing787jetliner Afterconsultingtogether theAmericanrepresentativescameupwitha ceilingprice TheChineserepresentativesthoughtitwasunreasonablyhigh LargeairlinecompaniesinChinaareregularclientsofBoeing Youshouldnotmakeita once for all deal Toenableustocontinueourpurchaseofyourairplanes pleaseconsiderwhetheryoucangiveusapreferentialpricebyreducingyourofferbyxx TheAmericanrepresentativesreplied Weconsideredthesefactorsbeforewequotedourpreferentialprice Therefore wearenotinapositiontoallowyouX discount letalonexx YouknowthatBoeing787jetlinersboastahighsafetycoefficientandafuel efficientfeature ThentheChineserepresentativesresponded Ifwepurchasealargequantity willyougiveamorefavorableprice TheAmericansaidtheywouldthinkaboutit InitialResult Inthefollowingroundsofnegotiation theChinesesideincreasedthenumberoftheairplanestheyordered stepbystep andtheAmericansmadeseveralappropriatepriceconcessions ItwasnotuntiltheChinesesideagreedtobuy42Boeing787jetlinersthattheAmericanrepresentativesweredelighted andfeltthatthingswerebetterthantheyhadexpected AndtheChinesesidewasalsosatisfiedwiththesettlementofapricexx lowerthantheinitialoffer AnotherProblem However whentherepresentativesfrombothsideswereabouttosignthecontract theAmericansidewentbackontheirwordbecause someAmericancongressmenpointedoutthatthegyroscope 回转仪 陀螺仪 installedintheBoeing787wasastate of the artsophisticatedprecisioninstrument IfairplaneswiththiskindofgyroscopewereexportedtoChina theybelieveditwouldhaveanadverseimpactonU S nationalsecurity Finalresult Therefore theAmericanrepresentativescameupwithanewproposal theywouldsellBoeing787swithoutgyroscopeorwithold generationgyroscopestoChina withacorrespondingreductioninprice TheChinesesidestronglydisagreed Wewon tbuyabeautifulbutblockheadedanddumbgiantbird TheBoeing787mustbefurnishedtheadvancedgyroscopes oritwillbeimpossibletoknowclearlyhowhighitfliesandwhatdirectionitgoes AlthoughtheAmericanrepresentativeshadraisedanewissueunderthepressurefromtheirCongressmen theChinesesidemaintainedtheirposition Intheend BoeingsignedtheagreementwiththeChineseAviationAdministrationofChina Thebargainphaseininternationalbusinessnegotiation coversbroadperiodoftimefromtheendoftheopeningphasetothebeginningoftheclosingphase iscalled thestepofovercomingbarrierstoagreement constitutesthecentralandmostdifficultstageinthewholenegotiationprocess Inthebargainingphase eachnegotiatingparty measuresitsownstrength intelligenceandstrategiesagainstthoseofitscounterpart adjustsitsownnegotiationstrategies modifiesitsoriginalnegotiationobjectivesortargets andthen establishesabasicframeworkforthenegotiationagreement Bargaininginvolvesthreekeyaspects quotingaprice bargainingovertheprice makingcompromisesQuotationCase2 Parts theMacauJockey 赛马 ClubinChinaanAustralianjockeyclubBackground TheMacauJockeyClubinChinawascommissionedtonegotiatewithanAustralianjockeyclubaboutintroducingtenhorsesoffinebreeding Theseller theAustralianjockeyclub wouldsellthehorsesaslongasthepricewasabove1millionAustraliandollarsperhorseontheaverage MacauJockeyClub aimedtopaynomorethan1 5millionAustraliandollarsperhorse Thetwosidesdidnotknowoneanother sbottomprice quotedabove butbothofthemwouldbenefitiftheycouldcloseadealincluding10horsesatatotalpriceof10 15millionAustraliandollars Step1 Thebuyerrequestedthesellertoquoteapricefirst Theinformationthesellerhadgathered includedthefollowing asthehorseracingseasonwasapproachinginMacau anumberoflocalracehorseshadtoretirebecausetheywereilloroverage butpure bredEuropeanhorseswereoveramillionorevenseveralmillionEuroseach so itwouldnotpayforasmalljockeyclublikeMacauJockeyClubtobuythemfortheirracingseason Incontrast Australianracehorses alsothoroughbredsoriginatingfromEurope werepracticallypriced andwerethelogicalfirstchoicefortheMacauClub Therefore thesellerestimatedthattheMacauJockeyClubwouldpayatleast12 5millionAustraliandollarsforthese10horses andmaybetheywouldpayashighas17 5millionAustraliandollars Nevertheless theAustraliansidehadnotplannedtoquoteapricetoohighforfearthatthebuyerwouldperceivethemaslackingsincerity andwouldabandonthebargainingtoosoonandturntoNewZealandforthepurchase Thus theAustralianjockeyclubmadeaninitialbidforatotalpriceof17millionAustraliandollarsforthe10horses Step2 ThoughtheMacauclubhadanticipatedtheseller sbottomline thisquotationwashigherthantheyhadexpected Anyway theseller sfirstquotedpricewas2millionAustraliandollarshigherthanMacau shighestacceptableprice resistantpoint However judgingfromthequotation thebuyerestimatedthattheseller sexpectedpricewouldbeabove15millionAustraliandollars Ifthiswerethecase itwouldbedifficulttoreachanagreement Hence thebuyermadeaprobing 刺探性的 counter bidatatotalpriceof12millionAustraliandollars Step3 Becausetherewasabiggapbetweentheopeningpricesthatthetwosidesquoted theirrepresentativeshadtohaggleoverthem Theseller scounter bidwasatotalof15 5Australiandollarsandthebuyercounteredagainwithabidof13 5millionAustraliandollars Result Finally thesellersuggestedthatmeethalfwayandagreeonapriceat14 5millionAustraliandollars TheMacauclubacceptedthatprice feelingpleasedwithoutshowingit theyhadsaved0 5millionAustraliandollarsfortheirclub Theydidnotknowthatthesellergot4 5millionAustraliandollarsmorethantheiroriginalbottomline Thedefinitionofquotation Narrowlydefined aquotationis awaytoindicateaparticularpriceatwhichonepartywillbuyorsellthespecifiedcommodity Broadlydefined itinvolves allthatonepartyproposestotheotherconcerningmutualinterestsinabusinessnegotiation includingthefollowingtermsandconditionsforadeal thenameofcommodity quality quantity price packaging shipping insurance paymentterm inspections claims arbitration etc Forlargeprojects itmayinclude formsofcooperation ratioofcapitaldistribution profitandlossdistribution etc FormsofquotationTwoforms OralorwrittenOral ininternationalbusinessnegotiationWritten ininternationalbusinesscorrespondence telex telegramsande mailsaswellasinabidortendersubmittedinaninternationalproject OralquotationItischaracterizedasconvenient prompt andflexible Advantages Negotiatingface to faceorthroughInternationalDialing IDD may helptoeliminatebarriersoftime spaceandlanguage enablenegotiatorstoquoteanddirectlyjustifytheprice theamountoftheirinvestment theratioofcapitaldistributionandthelikeatwhichtheirpartyexpectstoclosethedeal Thebiggestadvantageoftheoralquotationis negotiatorscantakeadvantageoftheircommunicationskillstobuildafavorableatmosphereanduseemotionalfactorstofacilitatetheacceptanceoftheirquotation Disadvantages Ifnegotiators lacktheabilitytoactquicklyinresponsetoanyunexpectedcontingencyoremergency or donothavegoodcommunicationskillsandexperienceindealingwithpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds First theymayfindthemselvesinaweakposition unabletoquotethepriceattherighttime Second theymaynotknowtheircounterpartswellandmaynotrealizewhentoquote whatpricetoquote andhowtoquotetheprice Third vulnerabletoanadverseimpactbecauseofaccentandnervoustension negotiatorsmaytendtomakeaslipofthetongueandengender 引起 misunderstanding Fourth thequotationmayberefusedimmediatelyonthespot Fifth thetwopartiesmayhaggleoverunimportantdetailsandslowdownthenegotiation Sixth somecomplexandsophisticatedtechnicalspecificationsmayrequirechartsanddiagrams andwouldbedifficulttoexpressclearlyinoralquotation 2 WrittenquotationItreferstoputtingaproposalforabusinesstransactionintheformofwriting including relativelydetaileddata usingspecificwords diagrams andtheliketoexpressclearlytotheotherpartythewholerangeoftermsandconditionsandotherrelateditemsonepartywouldbewillingtoaccept Advantages moreexplicitandformalthantheoralone mayeliminatethepossibilityofmisunderstandingsarisingfromanaccentormisstatementsduetonervousness canhelptocutthecostoftimeandeffortbecausethecompaniesinvolveddonotneedtomakeopeningstatements e g attheInternationalConsumerElectronicsShow CES heldinLasVegas Nevada U S A therepresentativeofaFrenchTVmanufacturerinquiredoftherepresentativeofanLCDmonitorcompanyinSuzhou ChinaaboutthepriceoftheirLiquidCrystalDisplay LCD monitors TherepresentativefromSuzhoupresentedaprintedquotationtohim whichincludedalistofthepricesofvariousLCDmonitorswiththeirtechnicalspecifications suchassizeandresolution 分辨能力 Disadvantages maycommititselftoarathernarrowrangeofoptions leavingverylittleroomforalternativestobepresentedassubsequentquotations theatmosphereislessintimatethanthatwhichsurroundsanoralquotation andthecommunicationbetweenthepartiesislesspersonalaswell mayappearratherrigidandstiff whenthequotationistranslatedintootherlanguages carelessmistakes omissions oversights 疏忽 ormisinterpretationsarequitelikelytooccur whichcanprovetobeveryembarrassing 3 CombinationoralandwrittenquotationTheinterchangeableorsupplementaryuseoforalandwrittenquotations withoneofthemplayingthemajorroleinturnduringdifferentphasesofthenegotiation isusuallycalledthecombinationoralandwrittenquotation Itmayeliminatethedisadvantagesordeficienciesencounteredwhenusingoralorwrittenquotationsalone 2 GuidelinesformakingaquotationTheprinciple toselldear atahighprice or tobuycheap atalowprice Thatmeans thesellershouldtrytopresenthisquotationatthehighestpriceacceptabletothebuyer thebuyershouldbidthelowestpricethesellercanbear Inotherwords ifitispossible eachsellerandeachbuyerattemptstomaximizehisownpotentialprofit Itisideal forthesellertostartwiththe highestdefensiblequote and forthebuyer thecorrespondingguidelineisofcoursethe lowestdefensibleoffer Case3 background Aforeigndeveloperbuiltsix5 starluxuryapartmentbuildings calledthe TomsonRivieraDedicatedtotheElites 汤臣一品 inthecenterofcommerceandfinance theLujiazuiarea Pudong Shanghai EachandeveryunitinthisdepartmentcomplexhasariverfrontviewofHuangpuRiver andallowstheresidentstoviewthebusyBundataglance Andwhat smore allthematerialforbuildinganddecoratingwereimported Forexample theexteriorwallsaremadeofallimportednaturalstone andcoatedwithhightechequipmentsforsafetyandfirecontrol Thesecurityandautomationcontrolsystemistop of the line includingsuchitemsasembossed 浮雕的 Noblesse 贵族的 anti theftsound proofall copperdoors whichensurethesafetyofthecollectionofluxuryandprestigehomeappliancesinside Whataperfectcomplementbetweentheartsandtechnology Theapartmentbuildingswerecompletedin2005 andthensoldglobally weighinginatapriceashighasRMB130 000persquaremeter abouttentimeshigheroftheaveragepriceofpropertiesindowntownShanghaiatthattime and3to4timeshigherthantheapartmentbuildingsadjacenttothem Result Asaresult ayearaftertheywereputonthemarket notasingleapartmenthadbeensoldinthecity smostexpensivenewhousingproject Whatdidactuallyhappen Theproblemcanbetracedtoitssource Thequotationwasaone sidedwish heedlessofthemarketsituation andthepricewasunreasonable quitebeyondwhatwasacceptabletoanyprospectivebuyers thusitwasaviolationofthefirstprincipleformakingquotation Thebasicquotationprincipleisthat whennegotiatorsaremakingaquotation theyshouldconsidernotonlytheprofittheycangetiftheyclosethedealatthedesiredorquotedprice butalsothedemandandsupplyoftherelatedfactors 3 Quotationdecisions1 SettherangeofquotationToselectareasonablerangeofpricesforquotation thenegotiatorsshould assessthesituation i e demandandsupply inthenationalandinternationalmarkets learnthepricelevelandoffersoftheircompetitorsasreferences and makesuretheywillcoverthecostofthetransactionandearnareasonableprofit considertheircompany soperationobjectivesorgoals e g Astate ownedpharmaceuticalmanufacturerinThailand producedanti HIVaidsdrugs modeledonthepatentsofAmericancompany PfizerPharmaceuticalsLimited Whenthepharmaceuticalproductwaslaunchedonthemarket thequotationwaslimitedtopricesrangingfromone forthtoone halfofthepricesofsimilarmedicinesproducedbyPfizer ThepricewassetsolowbecausetheThaicompanytookmanyfactorsintoconsideration theroyaltyfeesfortheuseofpatents productioncosts necessaryprofitand thepricelevelsacceptableinthelocalmarket TheyknewthatmostofthelocalAidspatientswerelowerormiddleclasscitizenswithlowincomewhocouldnotaffordexcessively high pricedmedicineandtreatmentatall 2 SetthebottomlineNegotiatorssetthelowestpricetargetfirst thatisthebottomlinethattheymightbeabletobearintheworstsituation Theleastacceptablepricelevelbasicallyservestoguaranteethat thetransactioncostiscovered and alittleprofitismade Theadvantagesofsettingabottomlinefortheprice A Itmayhelptopreventonesidefromacceptingoverly harshtermsandconditionsproposedbytheotherside B Itmayhelponesideavoidlosingpotentialbenefits C Withthebottomlineinmind thenegotiatorsarelikelytobecautiousenoughsoasnottomakeacarelessdecisioninhasteoutofmoment sexcitement D thebottomlinetendstogenerateamongnegotiationteammembersasenseofbeingorworkinginunison andpreventstheteamfromfallingshortofsuccessduetolackofsufficienteffort Assellers Negotiatorsmayquotethehighestpricewithinthepricerangeorscopetheyhaveselected leavingroomforlaterconcession Asbuyers Theyshouldquotethelowestprice Aslongasthepriceisreasonableandacceptable aslongastheofferisnotoutoflineandindefensible thesellershouldbeboldenoughtoriskaskingahighpriceand thebuyersaudacious 大胆的 inofferingaslowaspossible Thereasons A Thehigherthesellingpriceisorthelowerthebuyingpriceis themoreleeway 余地 onecanpreserveforhisorhercompany B Doingsomayexertgreatpsychologicalpressureontheotherside diminishingtheirexpectation C Thepriceyouquotemayhaveanimpactonhowtheothersideassessesyourstrength donotlettheothersideformalowopinionofyourcompany 4 QuotingstrategiesCase4 Parts animportandexportcompanyinNewZealandtheSiberiaFurnitureandDecorationCompanyinRussia Background AnimportandexportcompanyinNewZealanddesiredtoexportabatchofsheep swooltotheSiberiaFurnitureandDecorationCompanyinRussia TheNewZealandcompanymadeaquotationatthefollowingprices NewZealand mademerino 美利奴绵羊 产细密的丝状羊毛 sheepskinwithwool supergrade 28persheet firstgrade 25 secondgrade 20 FOB Auckland 100 000sheetsavailable Thisofferisvalidwithin3days Thiscaseexemplifieshowtomakeaquotationthatwillinducetheothersidetomaketheirmove Toachievesuchaneffect thefollowingpointsshouldbestressed SpecificBeexplicitandstraightforward Avoidinguseambiguouswordslike about approximately probably Betterpresentyourquotationinwriting Inthecaseabove thequotationfromtheNewZealandexporteronmerinosheepwithwoolindifferentgradesservesagoodexampleofexplictandspecificquotations 2 DecisiveYououghttobedecisiveandresolutewhenyoupresentyourquotation Thisrequiresthat youavoidhemmingandhawing 恩恩哦哦 表示踌躇或吱唔 ifanoralquotationisinvolved and instead speakupclearly Incaseofawrittenquotation apromptreplyisalwaysthebestpolicy Onlyinthiswaycanyouappearcapable experiencedandconfident 3 NoexplanationOnceyouhavemadeyourquotationinastraightforwardandspecificwaywithoutanymisunderstandings youdonotneedtofollowitupimmediatelywithexplanationsorillustrations Thisisbecause A Thereisnoneedforextratalkingtoexplainsomethinglogicalandreasonable B Itwillnotbetoolatetoaddyourexplanationofhowyouformulatedyourprice yourcalculationbasisandmethodsiftheothersideshouldraisethesequestions 4 DifferentiationDifferentiationquotationsareoftenemployedasusefultoolsforcreatingmorepossibledeals Thisstrategyallowsacompanytobuyorsellthesameproductatdifferentpricesbasedontheirgrades quantity deliverydestination shipment methodsofpaymentandotherrelatedfactors e g NewZealand producedsheepskin thecompanymadeaquotationforthenegotiatedsheepskinatdifferentpricelevelsfordifferentgrades Inaddition thesheepskinwasdeliveredattheexportport andsothepricedidnothavetoincludethecostofshipmentandinsurance etc PaymentwasmadethroughanirrevocableL Catsight insteadofdocumentagainstpayment D P 付款交单 ordocumentagainstacceptance D A 承兑交单 Furthermore forrepeatbusinesswithlong termrelationshipsorbigaccountsdealinginlargequantities sellersshouldconsidergrantingacertainpercentofpricediscount Thedifferentiatedquotationisacommonquotingstrategyininternationalbusinessnegotiation 5 PsychologicalpricingIttakesadvantageofhumanpsychologythatmakespeopletendtolookforrealbargainsandbuycheap Generally therearethreekindsofpsychologicalpricingstrategies A Theactualpriceisnotchanged butisquoteddifferentlythroughtheconversionoftheoriginalunitsofmeasurementintosmallerones e g forcoffeeatapriceof 220perkilo thequotationcanbe 100perpound Andforpearlpowderat 32 5perkilo thequotationcanbe 0 9perounce Thoughtheactualpriceremainsthesame aquotationatacorrespondinglysmallerunitseemstoeasilymakethebuyerfeelthepriceisrelativelylow andthusquiteacceptable B Theactualpriceisnotchanged butbyusingthestrategyofbreakingupthewholeintoparts thequotedpriceofawholepackingisexpressedasoneforeachindividualitem e g cigarsat 50perpack of10pieces canbequotedasat 5percigar Aquotationof100cottonblanketsat1 200Eurocanbechangedinto12Europersheet Quitethesameaswiththequotationusingsmallerunits thismethodeasilymakespeoplefellitisquiteabitcheaper C Thedecimalfraction 十进制分数 isusedtoindicatepriceinaquotation Manysellersbelievethatpricesshouldendinadecimalfraction Itisrecognizedthatpeoplehaveapsychologicaltendencytosee 19 99assignificantlycheaperthan 20becausemanyofthemseetheformerasapriceinthe 10rangewhilethel